
/ii? 



r^^ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ^l 

027 584 431 7 



Hollinger Corp. 
pH8.5 



i^- 



DF 216 
.W25 
Copy 1 



Notes in History. 



THE EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS 



AND' 



GREE 



By GEORGE W. WARD, Ph.D.^ 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND POLITICS, WESTERN MARYLAND COLLEGE. 

Author of ''DATES BY NAME." 




13 



xBaltimore, Md.: 
The \Vm. J. C. Dui<ANY Company. 



OCT 16 1897 



5<r' 



'^f of Co9i 



:rN«^. 



TWO COPIES RECEIVED 



'io.-.zi (joy-L 






'CdMMCHT, 1897, 
BY 

The Wm. J. C. DULANY Co. 



\ 






The Eastern Civilizations. 

LECTURE I. The Genus Homo. 



1. ANTiaiTITY OF MAN. 

How long mail lias enjoyed a place among the animals of the world may not be 
definitely fixed, but that it has beenmany times longer than the 6,000 years of Arch- 
bishop Ussher's chronology would permit, can no longer be disputed. Geology says 
emphatically that man was created many thousand years ago, while the Bible account 
of the creation may be regarded as silent on the subject of chronology. Between the 
extremes of Ussher's 6,000^ and Lyell's 224, 000^ years, conservative scholars believe 
that all the conditions of the problem would be satisfied by a period of 30,000 
years since the creation of man. 

2. ANTHROPOLOGY, OR THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

Anthropology may be regarded as that j^iart of history which antedates conscious 
records. It offers four main arguments for the antiquity of man. 

(1) Diversity of physical characteristics — types. 

(2) Wide differences in prehistoric languages. 

(3) Pre-graphic was infinitely slower than post-graphic progress. 

(4) Changes in fauna and flora testify to the lapse of ages. 

All these changes had taken place before man was able to preserve any kind of 
intelligible records. =^ 

Note — For the natural history of the Family, Marriage, S) stems of Relationship, 
etc., see Westermarck's History of Human Marriage; Morgan's Ancient Society, and the 
same autlior's Systems of Oonscmguimty and Human Relationship, in Smithsonian 
Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. XVII. 

3. INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 

" Human inventions are the levers by which we have got ourselves out of the 
prehistoric pit." Man has been aptly characterized as a tool-using animal. But for 
the peculiar grasp of his thumb and forefinger, which enables him to use tools, man 
might have climbed, even yet, but little above the level of the apes. Consider the 
significance of the following tools : 

(1) Missiles and clubs — used by the man-like apes. 

(2) Articulate language. 

(3) Fire, first produced by lightning, percussion, friction? 

(4) Metallic implements. See Genesis, iv : 22. 

(5) The mechanical powers — lever, wedge, inclined plane. 

(6) Fishing tackle, pottery, bow and arrow. 

(7) Communication by written signs or characters. 



' See margins of The authorized version of the Bible. 

- Sir Charles Lyell's AiiHqmly of Man, p. 285. But for an estimate of the earth's age at 24,000,000 years (!!) 
see Smithsonian Report, 1893, p. 353. 
'■' See Anthropology, pp. 7-34. 




Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/notesinhistoryeaOOward 



THE EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS. 



4. PREHISTORIC AGES. 



(1) Palaeolithic, or old stone, age. 

(a) Period of the cave man, 
{b) Period of the river drift. 

(2) Neolithic, or new stone, age. 

(3) Bronze age. 

(4) Iron age. 

Such periods must be regarded as comparative rather than strictly chronological. 
They record only the order of progress, not the time required. 

Large, unpolished stone axes, fishing tackle, the relics of Keats's Hole in England, 
and the Mentone Man belong to the remotest age of human existence. 

Smaller, polished stone implements, shell mounds, lake dwellings, the Mound 
Builders in America, are characteristic of the new stone age. 

The civilization pictured in the Iliad — that of the ancient Mexicans, and that of 
the Scandinavians at the Christian era — belongs to the bronze age. 

The iron age, therefore, marks a considerable though undefined progress in civili- 
zation. 

5. MORGAN'S STAGES OF CIVILIZATION. 

(1) Savagery — distinguished from the lower animals by articulate speech. 

(a) Lower status — utter reliance upon nature for food. 

(b) Middle status — fish diet and cooking by fire. 

(c) Upper status — bow and arrow. 

(2) Barbarism — distinguished from savagery by the manufacture and use of pottery. 

(a) Lower status — pottery. 

(b) Middle status — domesticated animals in the old world ; cultivation of 

maize in the new world. 

(c) Upper status — smelting of iron ore. 

(3) Civilization proper is introduced by the invention of a phonetic alphabet. 
Read : Genesis, ch. i-xi ; Ragozin's Story of Ckaldea, ch. n ; Tylor's Anthropology; 

Art : "Anthropology" and "Geology," in Encyclopaedia Britannica ; Maclean's Manual 
of the Antiquity of Man ; Clodd's Story of Primitive Man; Hunter-Duvar's Stone, 
' Bronze, and Iron Ages; Huxley's Man's Place in Creation; Rawlinson's Origin of 
Nations ; Nadaillac's Prehistoric People. 

LECTURE II. Egypt. 

1. FEATURES OF THE COUNTRY. 

With a good map in hand notice that Egypt is a narrow strip extending from the 
Mediterranean 550 miles up tlie Nile. The ancient name of the country was Ke7)i, 
"black earth." Upper Egypt, from the Delta to the first cataract; capital, Thebes, the 
"hundred gated" of Homer. Lower Egypt; capital, Memphis. These were in pre- 
historic ages no doubt independent States — "lords of the upper and lower country." 

The Pyramids; the Sphinx; Vocal Memnon; Obelisks. 

The architecture is peculiar, massive and somber. The great temples are con- 
structed of columns chiefly, with capitals modeled after the lotus flower. 

Mummies are the remains of the dead who were so carefully embalmed as to be 
fairly well preserved for more than 4,000 years. 

2. RELIGION. 

"Worship of the personified forces of Nature and symbolical animal worship." 
An esoteric creed, one supreme divinity of whom all the various forms adopted by the 
people, were attributes. Memphis, the religious center of the South; great temple to 
the highest divinity, Ptah. The Sacred Bull, Apis. 



8 THE EASTERI^' CIVILIZATIONS. 

Ra, the sun-god, worshiped at Heliopolis; Ammon, god of heaven, worshiped at 
Thebes. 

Osiris was the personification of the creative forces of Nature. He was slain and 
thrown into the Nile by Set, the personification of the destructive forces in Nature. 
He was wept and sought by his wife Isis, avenged by their son Horos, who slew Set 
and restored Osiris. He personifies, therefore, the decay and resurrection continually 
going on in Nature. Immortality of the soul, judgment of the dead, priestly class, 
very high moral code, disc worship. Probable that Moses got his idea of the ark, 
purifications, priests, holy of holies, theocracy, and laws, from the Egyptians. 

3. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE EMPIRE. 

"Egypt," says Sayce,' "is historically the oldest of countries," but such records as 
the annals of Manetho, and these only in the reports of Josephus, Eusebius, and others, 
do not afford a very satisfactory chronology. 

Manetho was a priest of Sebennytus, who, under Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C. 
284-246,) translated the priestly annals of Egypt; but the work itself has been lost. 
These facts, together with the stories which the priests told Herodotus, (and four 
centuries later Diodorus), neither wholly agree among themselves, nor does any one of 
them bear the sure marks of scientific accui-acy. They do agree in assigning to Mena 
(Menes), the first king, great antiquity. The calculation of Diodorus carries back the 
record as far as B. C. 16,000. But the very fact that Mariette considers it necessary to 
manipulate these figures till they become B. C. 5004, while Lepsius from the very same 
data gets B. C 3892, is sufficient to show the absence of any possible definiteness in 
early Egyptian chronology. Mena, nevertheless, is regarded as historical, is said to 
have turned the Nile out of its course to secure a good site for Memphis, which he 
founded, besides other important works. 

4. THE OLD EMPIRE, B. C 5000-1700. 

There are no monuments till the end of Dynasty III., yet Mena, the first king of 
Dynasty I., according to Manetho, is believed to have founded Memphis upon a .site 
secured by turning the Nile to the east and to have built the great temple there to 
Ptah. He was a great warrior, and after a reign of 62 years he was killed by a hippo- 
potamus. Not till Dynasty IV., when the great pyramids were built, have we any clear 
view of Egyptian affairs. Khufn (Cheops), the first of this Dynasty, perhaps built the 
largest of the pyramids, his successors to the Xllth Dynasty, building the others. The 
most brilliant period of the Old Empire (B. C. 2800-2700.) 

Thebes, in upper Egypt, becomes the capital instead of Memphis, B. C. 2400. 

The Hyksos (Xlllth to the XA^IIth Dynasties) ruled Egypt from about B. C. 2100 
to about B. C. 1700. They were driven out by Aahmes. 

5. THE NEW EMPIRE— B. C 1700-525. 

A new era in Egyptian history dawns with the accession of the XVIlIth Dynasty. 
Capital still Thebes. Expeditions against the Assyrians. Kings of this Dynasty built 
the great temples of Carnac, Luxor and Abydos. The greatest conqueror who had yet- 
arisen in Egypt was Seti I. (1438-1388). Expeditions to Ethiopia, Arabia, and to the 
Euphrates. His son, Ramessu II. (Ramses the Great) 1388-1322, was the half mythical 
hero whom Herodotus calls Sesostris, and this notwithstanding his loss of Syria. This 
was probably the Pharaoh who oppressed the Hebrews. Under his son, Mineptah 
(1322-1302), occurred the exodus of the Hebrews. From this time forward Egyptian 
history becomes more and more entangled with the history of the Hebrews, Assyrians, 
Persians and Greeks. It was not till B. C. 525, however, that Cambyses defeated Psa- 
metik III. in the battle of Pelusium, and made Egypt a Persian province. 

Read: Rawlinson's Story of Egypt; Arts. "Egypt," "Pyramid," "Embalming," 



1. Ancient Empires of the East. 



10 ' THE EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS. 

" Mummies," "Cheops," "Memphis," "Thebes," "Alexandria," "Apis," " Nile," " Baal- 
bec" [Heliopolis], " Mauetho," "Sesostris," " Rameses," and " Hittites," in Encyc. 
Brit.; Rawlinsoii's Five Ancient Monar cities ; Brugsch's History of Egypt; Arts. 
" Biibastis : an Historical Study," in Century Mag., JanT, 1890;" 'Spoiling the 
Egyptians," Century, Nov., 1890. 

LECTURE III ChALDEA. 

1. THE TIGRO-EUPHRATES BASIN (SHINAR). Gen. x: id; xiv: 1-9. 

With map in hand study carefully the geography of Western Asia. Notice that if 
the four points, northeastern extremity of the Persian Gulf, southeastern extremity of 
the Mediterranean, and the centers of the Black and Caspian seas, be connected by straight 
lines, the resulting figure will be nearly a scxuare. This square will include Mesopo- 
tamia ("between rivers") and tlie countries associated with it — a territory of about a 
million square miles, or the size of the United States east of the Mississippi. 

The Persian Gulf extended above the present junction of the Euphrates and 
Tigris. Between these rivers, and dependent for life upon their overilow, lay Chaldea. 
Outside this fertile strip most of the country was sandy and desolate. 

The Tigris, direct and swift (arrow), is about the length of the Ohio (1100 miles), but 
carries a far smaller volume of water. The Eaplirates, though as long as the Potomac, 
the Susquehanna, and the Delaware combined (1800 miles), is only 2.50 yards wide and 
eighteen feet deep. Irrigation. The modern village of Hillah — site of Babylon — is" 
situated on the Euphrates sixty miles south of Bagdad and one hundred and twenty- 
five miles above the junction. 

2. RECENT EXCAVATIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 

Comparatively little was known about the ancient Chaldeans till about the middle 
of the present century. The ruins of their once proud and wealthy cities had long 
slept beneath the strange mounds which here and there relieved the monotony of the 
plain without exciting the slightest cuiiosity in the meditative eastern mind, when, in 
1820, the Englishman, Rich, then at Bagdad in the service of the East India Company, 
had several of these mounds opened, measured, and described. 

In 1824 Mr. Botta, French Consul at Mosul, began excavation in earnest at the 
mound near by called Koyunjik (Nineveh), but found nothing of importance. Soon 
afterwards, at Khorsabad, he laid bare the walls of a great building. But the greatest 
of these discoverers was the Englishman Layard, who worked first in 184-5 at Nimrnd 
and later at Koyunjik. [For his most important discovery see section 4.] 

3. DAWN OF HISTORY. 

Perhaps the earliest authentic date in history is B. C. 3800. About that time 
Sargon I. became king of Chaldea. This date was established by means of a cylinder 
of Nabonidus, B. C. 560, which reads : " Shamash (the sun-god), the great lord, suffered me 
to behold the foundation cylinder of Naram-Sin, the son of Sharrukin [Saigon I.], which 
for thrice thousand and thrice hundred years none of the kings that lived before me 
had seen." This 3200 years added to 550 gives B. C. 3750 for Naram-Sin, and for his 
father, Sharrukin, who had a very long reign — B. C. 3800. The people over whom this 
Sargon I. ruled were called Shumiro-Accadians ; Turanian ; agglutinative language ; 
numerous cities and advanced civilization ; Signet ring, of Ur-ea, who reigned about 
B. C. 2800. In B. C. 2286 came the Elamite invasion ; also Turanian, capital atShushan 
(Susa). It was one of tliis dynasty, Khurdur-Lagamar, who fought with Abraham. 
[See Genesis, ch. xiv.] Semites in Elam. 

As early as B. C. 1900 the Semitic colony of Assyria, founded in the north. 
Babylon overshadows Susa and becomes thp capital of the Chaldeans. The Elamite 
dynasty soon becomes insignificant, and liltle is known of the Chaldeans till they were 
conquered by the Assyrians, B. C. 1300. 



12 THE EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS. 

4. THE LIBRARY OF NINEVEH. 

Speaking of Layard's work at Nineveh, Ragozin says:' "But a greater wonder has 
been brought to light from amidst tlie rubbish and dust of twenty-five centuries : a 
collection of literary and scientific works, of religious treatises, of private and jjublic 
documents, deposited in rooms constructed on purpose to contain them, arranged in 
admirable order; in short, a library. This was the result of Layard's work at Koy- 
unjik. In excavating the two palaces of Sennacherib and Asshur-banipal, a room 
was found littered with fragments of baked clay tablets. These were inscribed with 
cuneiform characters, and proved upon examination to be books (!) which hadevidently- 
f alien from the room above and been broken." Transmitted to the British Museum, 
and years afterwards deciphered by George Smith, tliey were found to contain stories 
of the creation, garden of Eden, deluge, &c , not unlike those of Genesis. 

5. CHALDEAN RELIGION. 

It is a mistake to regard Christianity as the only religion. The most ancient 
Shumiro-Accadians had a religion, sensual and depraved to be sure, yet a true religion- 
It was essentially a religion of fear. Their whole life was one prolonged effort to 
appease the evil spirit — the Seven Maskim.. Their divinities were arranged in groups of 
three, and their worship presided over by a priestly class — Patesis. They had numer- 
ous and elaborate myths, many not unlike those found later among the Greeks. 

Eead : Ragozin' s <S'fo?'?/ ofGhaldea, especially chs. i-iv of the Introd ; also, chs. ii and 
vi-vii; Layard's Nineveh and its Reviains ; Sayce's Babylonian Literature ; Rawlin- 
son's Five Ancient Monarchies, vols. i. and ii. 

LECTURE IV. The Later Monarchies in the Tigro-Euphrates Basin 

1. THE ASSYRIANS. 

Three successive empires in the Tigro-Euphrates basin. Assyria lay north of 
Ohaldea, of which it was a colony, and for centuries the two peoples had a contem- 
porary, independent existence — Assyria in the uplands between the rivers, Chaldea in 
the lowlands to the South. The Assyrians were Semitic, with a religion much like 
that of the Hebrews, Assliur their patronym and supreme deity. The mother empire, 
Chaldea, became tributary to the Assyrians about B. C. 1300 though not fully con- 
quered till 710. _The Assyrians first became very formidable under Tiglath-Pileser I. 
(1120-1100). The powerful Khetas (Hittites) and many other neighbors were reduced 
to subjection. [See Ragozin's Story of Chaldea, pp. 46-60]. 

Decline after Tiglath-Pileser I. Relations with the Chaldeans and the Hebrews. 
Alliance between Ahab, king of Israel and Shalmaneser II. (745-727). 

The Second Empire — Tiglath-Pileser II. Semiramis. [See Story of Assyria, pp. 
194-201]. Assyria at the height of its power under this monarch. It is concerning him 
that Isaiah prophesies. [See Isaiah, clis. 5-7 ; II. Kings, chs. 13-15; Story of Assyria, 
pp. 218-239]; Sargon IL, B. C. 722; Fall of Samaria; Sargon's Palace. [See Story of 
Assyria, pp. 278-294]. Nineveh at the height of her glory; conquered and destroyed 
by Medes and Babylonians, B. C. 606. 

Read: Ragozin's Story of Assyria; Art. "Assyria," "Nineveh," " Semiramis," in 
Encyc. Brit. 

2. BABYLONIA, B. C 606-538. 

With the fall of Nineveh, Babylon became again the leader of the Eastern peoples. 
Nebuchadnezzar (B. C. 604-561,) son of Nabnpolassar, under whom the Babylonians 
conquered Nineveh, was a mighty warrior. At Carchemish, on the Euphrates, he 



'iS/ory of Ohaldea. p 100. 



14 THE EASTERN m'lLIZATIONS. 

defeated the Egyptians under the famous Pharoali Necho. In E. C. 586 he destroyed 
Jerusalem, carrying the treasures of the temple and the inhabitants of the city off to 
Babylon. Built the "Hanging Gardens," which liave been attributed by tradition to 
Semiramis. Rapid decline under his successors. Under Belshazzar, who reigned 
jointly with his father, Babylon was taken by Cyrus the Great (538) and became a 
Persian province. 

Read: Art. "Babylonia," "Nabopolassar," "Nebuchadnezzar" and "Belshazzar" in 
Encyc. Brit. Sayce's Ancient Nations of the East, ch. "Babylonia." 

3. PERSIA-CYRUS THE GREAT. B- C 558-530. 

Legend makes Cyrus the grandson of Astyages, king of the Medes. Foretold as a 
conqueror, he was exposed by Astyages in the mountains saved by Harpagus [how?] 
afterwards recognized in the Median court, sent away, became king of the Persians and 
overthrew the Medes, who then joined him in the career which made Gyros the 
FOUNDER OP the FIRST WORLD EMPIRE. [See Herodotus I., 107.] War against Lydia, 
capture of Croesus, etc. [Herodotus I., 86.] Capture of Babylon, after a siege of two 
years, by diverting the waters of the Euphrates. Cyrus led nine expeditions against 
eastern tribes; fell in the last, B. C. 529. Herodotus'l., 202-214. 

Read: Art. "Persia," "Media," "Cyrus," in Encyc. Brit. 

4. DARIUS HYSTASPES-B. C 521-485. 

Cyrus was succeeded by his eldest son, Canibyses. Conquered Egypt (and slew the 
bull, Apis?) On his return journey he died in Syria (by his own hand?) Bardija, the 
false Smerdis, proclaimed king. Slain by seven Persian princes, the chief of whom, 
Darius, was made king. Second founder of the Persian Empire and a great organizer 
and statesman. Satrapies, post communication, throughout the empire. 

Revolt of the Ionian Greeks [Lecture xiv., sec. 2] in B. C. 500, and the wars with 
Greece, which were to be continued at intervals for nearly 200 years, begun. Darius 
fought the battle of Marathon [Lecture xv.], and died in the midst of his preparations 
for the battle which was afterwards fought by his son, Xerxes, at Thermopylsp [Lecture 
XVI.] From that event the affairs of Persia may be sufliciently noted in connection 
with those of Greece. The empire was overthrown by Alexander at the battle of Gau- 
gamela (Arbela,) B. C. 331. 

Read: Arts. "Cambyses," "Darius," "Persia," "Susa,"' and "Persepolis," in Encyc. 
Brit. ; Sayce's kncient Nations of the East, cli. "Persia." 

5. Write notes of all you read on tbe subjects treated in this lecture. Report 
from the notes so made some incident or story not found in the lectures. 

LECTURE v.— The Hebrews. 

1. THE PATRIARCHS, (?) B. C 1300 

The typical Semitic race, claiming descent fi'oiu Heber, or Eber (whence the name), 
great-grandson of Shem. In the fifth generation from Heber lived Terah, Abraham's 
father, in " Ur of the Chaldees." Ur was the great center of moon worship in Chaldea, 
and Terah (urged by Abraham who had sought and found God ?) removed with his 
family to Haran, whence Abraham continued his journey to Palestine. [Genesis 11-20]. 
[Find all these places on the map]. Visit to Egypt. The mild, inoffensive Isaac. 
[Genesis, 21-26]. Jacob and Esau. [Genesis, 27-36]. Jacob's exile (for a lie ?); his 
return. Joseph. [Genesis, 37-50]. Sold into Egypt. Becomes Viceroy of the country. 
Famine drives his countrymen thither. The Exodus. Moses leads the Hebrews to 
Palestine. [Exodus, 1-40]. 

Read: Art. "Abraham," "Isaac," "Jacob," "Joseph," "Moses," in Encyc. Brit., or 
(for fuller accounts) see the same subjects in McCIintock and Strong's Cyclopedia of 
Biblical Literature. 



16 THE EASTERN CI VIUZATIOxNS. 

2. THE JUDGES, B. C- 1300-1055. THEOCRACY. 

Study a good map. Palestine was a country (about the size of Maryland) stretch- 
ing along the eastern end of the Mediterranean. Hilly and in parts mountainous, it 
was nevertheless a fruitful land, and was inhabited by numerous powerful tribes. 
When Joshua, the successor of Moses, invaded the country, he was stoutly opposed by 
the Canaanites and other half savage tribes, so that years were occupied by the Hebrews 
in conquering enough land to furnish subsistence for his people. After Joshua's death 
the struggle still went on, victory inclining now to one side, now to the other. Mean- 
while the Hebrews were nominally ruled by "Judges." Of these "Judges" Samson, 
was one of the most powerful and cruel. His vengefulness towards the Philistines was 
specially fierce. Of an opposite disposition was the priestly Samuel Another power- 
ful "Judge" was Gideon. Note the savage cruelty practiced by these semi-barbarous 
peoples in their desultory raids (wars?") upon each other. 

Read: Joshua, Judges, 1. aiid II. Samuel.' 

3. THE UNITED KINGDOM, B C 1055-953. ' 

At length the Hebrews found their weak, disorganized government, unable to stand 
against the strong, centralized governments of their neighbors, and they proceeded to 
establish a kingdom with Saul for their first monarch (B. C. 1055). Samuel's power hence- 
forth restricted to religious matters. Still he was able to destroy the power of the throne 
because Saul encroached upon religious prerogatives. David, king 1025. Founder of 
the Hebrew nation. Borders of the country greatly extended. Jerusalem captured and 
made the capital of the kingdom. The Psalms. Story of Absolom. [II. Samuel, 
15-18, et ante]. Solomon, son of Bathsheba, became king (B. C. 993. Ploeiz) according 
to his father's wish. Married an Egyptian princess and introduced idolatry; had many 
wives besides. He became very rich and powerful; built the temple and encouraged 
foreign trade, but his oppressions became so severe as to cause a revolt. 

Read: Art. "Saul," "David," "Solomon," in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia 
of Biblical Literature. 

4. THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL, B. C- 953-722. 

Solomon was succeeded by his son Rehoboam, whose arrogance, however, fur- 
nished occasion for the revolt which was already ripe. Ten of the tribes set up a 
separate kingdom under Jeroboam, who established his capital at Samaria. The 
Levites (priests) remained true to Rehoboam, hence in the northern kingdom idolatry 
prevailed from the first. The Jews from that time would have no intercourse with the 
Samaritans. Elijah and Elisha contended against the profligacy of the kingdom of Israel. 
King Ahab married Jezebel, a cruel princess of Tyre, through whom the worship of the 
Phoenician Baal and Astarte was introduced. After Jehu (B. C. 815) the kingdom de- 
clined rapidly and became tributary to Assyria about B. C. 750. Jerusalem captured 
by Sargon (II.) B. C. 722, and the inhabitants deported. "The Ten Lost Tribes of 
Israel." 

Read: "Jeroboam," "Jehu," "Hoshea," "Elijah," "Elisha," "Samaria," "Samari- 
tan," in McClintock and Strong. 

5. THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH, B. C: 953-586. 

After the revolt of the ten tribes Rehoboam was left reigning at Jerusalem with 
only the tribes Judah, Simeon, and a part of Benjamin for subjects. His country was 
immediately overrun by the Egyptians under Shishak. 

Almost continuous warfare with the kingdom of Israel. Peace -through the 
marriage of Jehoram with Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel of Israel. Jehu, 
king of Israel (843-815), broke this alliance by slaughter. Athaliah seized power at 
Jerusalem and introduced the worship of Baal. Under Aniaziah (797-792) Jerusalem 



' These are the original sources for this period of history. 



18 THE EASTKKX CIVILIZATIOXS. 

was captured by Israel, and the temple was plundered. Under liis son, Uzziaji (792- 
740), Isaiah prophesied. Soon Judah became tributary to the Assyrians ; next the 
country was subject to Egypt — Pharoh Necho ; battle of Megiddo, 609. Neclio in turn 
was beaten by the Assyrians at Carchemish, B. C. 605. Jerusalem captured and 
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar and the people carried to Babylon, B. C. 586. Except 
under the Maccabees the Hebrews scarcely had a national history after the restoration 
by Cyrus the Great. 

Read: Art. "Israel" in Encyc. Brit.; Ewald's History of the people of Israel, • 
Graetz's History of the Jews; Smith's Old Testament History; Kenan's History of 
Israel. 



Greece. 

PART I. Prehistoric Times. 

I\Iap of Ancient Greece. 




59 



GREECE. 



LECTURE VI. The Geography of Greece. 

There are four natural divisions of the Greek peninsula: Epirus, Thessaly, Central 
Greece and Peloponnesus. Macedonia, not a part of Greece proper, lay north of Thes- 
saly. 

1. Epirus lay to the northwest on the Ionian Sea, just opposite the heel of the 
"Italian boot," and, therefore, at the entrance of the Adriatic Sea. It was inhabited 
by a tribe not of pure Greek blood. 

2. Thessaly lay east of Epirus; these two districts being cut off from Central 
Greece by the deep indentations of the Malian and Ambracian gulfs, with a mountain- 
ous ridge extending between. It is separated from Epirus by tlie Pindus range of 
mountains. In the north are the Cambunian mountains, and Mount Olympus, the 
fabled abode of the gods. The river Peneus, iiowing northeasterly, forms, between 
Mounts Olympus and Ossa, the beautiful Vale of Tenipe. 

3. Central Greece was divided into nine petty districts, each sepai-ated from the 
other by more or less important natural barriers. Of these the most important are 
Attica — the long thumb of the "Grecian hand" — with its Athens and Marathon; 
Boeotia, with its Thebes; central Phocis, with its Delphi and the world-renowned oracle 
of the Pythian Apollo, and tiny Malls, with its Thermopyke. 

4. Peloponnesus (Island of Pelops) is united with the mainland by the Isthmus 
of Corinth. This division also has nine small districts, among which may be men- 
tioned Argolis, the home of Argives, immortalized by Homer (the Iliad), Elis in the 
northwest with its Olympia or temple to Zeus, where the Olympian games were cele- 
brated, ahd Laconia with the military city of Sparta. 

5. INFLUENCE OF THE COUNTRY UPON ITS INHABITANTS. 

Greece is a country of cavernous mountains, swift, elusive streams, and deeply- 
indented shores. A briglit blue sky and mild climate is conducive to high spirits and 
physical vigor, while numerous adjacent islands invite to social intercourse and trade. 
No point in Greece is more than forty miles from the coast. "Greece consists of a 
series of natural cantons, hedged from one another, and from the outer world by 
mountain ranges from 5,000 to 8,000 feet high, and so was almost by a physical 
necessity occupied in the times of its ancient political independence by seventeen sepa- 
rate States, none of which was larger than an ordinary English county." [Jebb]. 

Classical Greece, exclusive of islands, contained nearly 25,000 square miles, having 
an extreme length of 250 miles and an extreme width of 180 miles. If you conceive a 
rectangle cut by a diagonal into two right triangles the rectangle would sufficiently 
represent Greece, while one of the right triangles might stand for the State of Mary- 
land. 

That so small a country, with such remarkable peculiarities, should have nourished 
a people very different from the Greeks is scarcely conceivable. 

Read: Freeman's Historical Geography of Ev,rope,c,\i. i., Art. "Greece," in Encyc. 
Brit., part I. ; Grote's History of Greece, ch. i. ; Curtin's History of Greece, ch. i. ; 
Mahaffy's Rambles and Studies in Greece; Butcher's Some Aspects of the Greek 
Genius. 

LECTURE VIL RELIGION OF THE GREEKS, 

1. MYTHS ANB THEIR INTERPRETATION. 

Natural phenomena inspired the Greeks with admiration and -awe. They began 
with the known and peopled the unknown with hosts of greater or lesser deities which 
were imagined to be fitted to produce the phenomerux of nature as well as of individual 
lives. The ancient Greeks were in religion almost diametrically opposite to the modern 
Germans. The Greek ideal would make the gods Wi««-like ; the German ideal would 
have wie/i ^o^-like. Greek religion was from without, inward; that of the Germans 
from within outward. 



24 GREECE. 

2. THE GODS AND GODDESSES. 

There were twelve greater deitie.s — six male and six female. Zeus stood at tlie 
head of tlie Greek pantheon. He was father of gods and men — hurler of the thnnder- 
bolt. Pseidon, god of the sea; Ajiollo (Phoebus), god of light, music and healing; 
Ares (Mars), god of war; Heylutstn.s, deformed god of fire, maker of thunderbolts for 
Zeus, and Hermes (Mercury), messenger of the gods, represented with wings to his feet, 
the patron of thieves. Hera (Juno) was queen of Zeus. Athena (Pallas) sprung full 
grown from tlie forehead of Zeus, goddess of wisdom and the liousehold; Artemis (Diana), 
goddess of the chase ; Aiyhrodite (Venus), goddess of love and beauty, created out of" 
the sea foam ; Hestia, goddess of the hearth, and Demeter, goddess of the harvest. 
[See Murray's Manual of Mythology pp. 1-199.] ' 

Heroes were half human, half divine. They were subject to human ills, but vastly 
superior to mere human beings. According to the legends, heroes discovered, conquered 
and settled Hellas, destroyed the monsters which harried the land, organized the State 
and led the people to war. Theseus organized the State; the Pelasgians traced their 
orgin to the Argive Phoroneus; the Hellenes to Deukalion, the Greek Noah. Prome- 
tJieu.s stole fire from the gods, for which he was chained to Mount Caucasus, where a 
vulture fed during the day upon his liver, which grew by night. C adm,us hvo\\g\\t the 
alphabet and civilization to Greece. Heracles was the national hero; his twelve labors. 
See Murray's Manual of Mythology, pp 200-308. 

. THE TROJAN WAR ai93-1184) AND THE ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION. 

Study a good map. Find Troy (Ilios); also the region Colchus, visited by the 
Argonauts. 

Priam, king of Troy, had two sons, Paris, and Hector whose wife was Andromache. 
Paris, while on a visit to Menelaus, king of Sparta, stole his host's wife, Helen. The 
Greeks made war on the Trojans to recover her. Agamemnon, of Mycenae, brother of 
Menelaus, was the Greek leader. He was aided by Sthenelus, of Tiryns; Nestor of 
Pylos; Achilles, from Phtliia, in Thessaly, king of the Myrmidons; Odysseus, of Ithaca, 
and others. The only kernel of trutli in this great myth is that the Greeks made an 
expedition into Asia Minor and captured Troy; the rest is fiction. 

The Argonauts were a band of heroes who, under Jason, sailed in the "Argo" 
after the golden fleece. Phrixos, son of a Thessalian king, was about to be sacrificed 
to Zeus to bring rain (Abraham and Isaac ?) when witli his sister Helle lie fled on the 
ram with the golden fleece which was given them by their mother. On the way the 
girl fell into the sea (called for her Hellespont) near Abydos (find it on the map). The 
Argonauts captured the golden fleece in Colchis (location?). The ram seems to have 
represented the rain which departed with the clouds. Jason ("bringer of blessings") 
procures it again. 

4. THE OLYMPIAN, PYTHIAN, ISTHMIAN, AND NEMEAN GAMES. 

(1) The Olympian games were celebrated as a sort of all-Greece religious festival 
once every four years at Olympia in Elis. These games tended most strongly to the 
unity of Greece. They were celebrated in prehistoric times, but were probably en- 
larged by the participation of Sparta in B. C. 820. The year 776 has been called the 
first Olympiad because the victor was in that year recorded for the first time (Coroibus). 
Time was reckoned by Olympiads. 

(2) The Pythian games were celebrated at Delphi in honor of Apollo. Little is 
known of them till B. C. 590. Music, art, etc. 

(3) The Nemean games were celebrated at Neniea in Argolis, also in honor of Zeus 
after B. C. 573. 

(4) The Isthmian games were celebrated on the Isthmus of Corinth iu honor of 
Poseidon after B. C. 582. 

These games were not unlike the modern international exposition or even the 
popular agricultural fair. 



26 (iKEECE. 

5. THE ELEUSIAN MYSTERIES AND THE AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL.' 

(1) Perhaps we might liken tlie Eleusiuiaii ?vlysteries to the idea of the ark of the 
covenant, and the holy of holies among the Hebrews. So carefully were the secrets of 
this worship guarded that to this day they have never been discovered. They were 
known only to the initiated. Yet enough is known to show that in the Eleusinian 
Mysteries celebrated at Eleusis, in Attica, every fifth year, the religious ideas of the 
Greeks reached their highest expression. The worship gathered about Demeter (earth- 
mother) and Persephone, typifying the return of vegetation. The oneness of divinity 
and some notion of the resurrection — immortality of the soul — appears to have been 
reached. 

(2) The Amphictyonic Council is fabled to have been originated by Amphictyon 
— a pre-historic king of Attica. There were several Amphictyonies, "leagues of neigh- 
bors," but the most important was that of Delphi. In the Delphic Amphictyony 
twelve tribes were leagued for (1) the protection of the Temple of Apollo, (2) mitigation 
of the cruelties of war (international law — arbitration?), and (3) repair of roads leading 
to Delphi. Representative government foreshadowed (?) yet the Amphicytons them- 
selves waged the most cruel wars. [Lecture XII., Section 1; Lecture XIII., Sections 
.3 and 4], and they also furnished Philip of Macedon with a pretext for entering Greek 
politics, and finally gave him the power to destroy the independence of Greece. 
[Lecture XXIIL, Section 3-5.] 

Read: Hesiod's Works and Days; Homer's Iliad ; Odyssey ; Herodotus ; Plu- 
tarch's Theseus ; Church's Stories from Homer : Grote's History of Greece, ch. — ; 
Myers's Greece, ch. 8. 

Note: Subjects for further study and report: The Trojan War [see Schliemann's 
Ilios\, Argonautic Expedition; Jupiter; Athena; Prometheus; Hera; Heracles; Deuka- 
lion; Hellen; Cadmus; Theseus [see Plutarch's Lives']; Achilles; Agamemnon; Nestor; 
Menelaus; Odysseus; Penelop — contrast Helen; Cecrops; Da,naus; the Nymphs; the 
Gorgons; the Fates; Olympian Games; Pythian Games; Nemean Games; Isthmian 
Games; Eleusinian Mysteries; Delphi, and its Oracle; War of the Epigoni; War of the 
Seven against Thebes [see Murray's Manual of Mythology; Smith's Classical Dic- 
tionary; Encyc, Brit; Century Dictionary, etc.] 

LECTURE VIIL^MlGRATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS- 

1. THE PELASGIANS. 
Very little is known of the earliest inhabitants of Greece. It is supposed that 
they came from the central highlands of Asia, crossed the Hellespont, and occupied the 
peninsula since called Greece, ages before the dawn of history. The Pelasgi (from 
Pela^gos, a son of Zeus and Nitobe, eponymus founder of the race), are known to his- 
tory but slightly, save through their remains. Walls, supposed to have been erected by 
Pelasgians, have been discovered at Tiryns, [see Ilaid II., 559,] Mycenae, and especially 
at Troy, [see Schliemann's works — Troy and Its Heniaiiis, (1878); 3fycenae, (1878); 
Ilios, (1881); 7roja, (1884); and Tiryns, {1SS5) 

2. HELLENES. 

The natives of Greece called themselves Hellenes, from Hellen, their eponymus 
progenitor. They were first called Greeks by the Romans, who, having encountered a 
small tribe called Graeci, spread the name to the whole people. Hellen was the son of 
Deukalion and Pyrrha, and father of the pure Greek tribes — lonians, Dorians, ^Eolians 
and Achaeans. [See Murray's Mamial, 205-9.] 

3. THE THESSALIAN MIGRATION. 

Soon after the Trojan war there was a pretty general movement and rearrange- 
ment of the Grecian tribes. For some unknown reason the Thessaliaus, a tribe of 



28 GBEECE. 

Epirots, migrated into the district since called for them Thessaly. This drove out the 
iEolian and Dorian inhabitants of that region towards the south. The iEolians fell 
upon the Boeotians, destroying what was, perhaps, the last remnant of the Pelasgiaas, 
while the movement of the more powerful Dorians into Peloponnesus has been styled — 

4. THE DORIAN MIGRATION, B. C- 1104. 

This is also known as the "Return of the Heraclidfe," because led by descendants 
of Heracles, who had for some crime been banished from the Peloponnesus for a hun- 
dred years. This legend represents, no doubt, the historical fact of the conquest of- 
Peloponnesus by the hardy Dorian race, of which the Spartans became the type. Here 
again the oldest inhabitants, chiefly lonians and Achfeans, were displaced, the lonians 
moving into Attica, where, with Athens as a capital, they became the hereditary foe of 
the Dorian Spartans, while others pushed across the iEgean sea and established — 

5. THE GREEK SETTLEMENTS IN ASIA MINOR 

From the dawn of history the islands of the .Egean and the coast of Asia Minor 
were thickly studded with Greek settlements. During the migrations, which seemed 
to force the tribes of Greece further .south, pushing off, as it were, those who had been 
on the southern border, many new settlements were formed by the displaced tribes. 
This movement, however, which was finished before B. C. 900, must be carefully dis- 
tingnished from the later period of Greek colonization. [Lect. XL, sec. 1-3.] 
^ Read : Grote's History of Greece, Part II., Ch. 6; Miller's History of the Dorians; 
Art. "Dorians," "lonians" and "Greece," Part II, in Encyc. Brit.; Holm's History of 
Greece, Vol. I., Chs. III. to X.; Abbott's History of Greece, Vol. I; Myers's Greece, 
Ch. II. 



30 DORIAN INVASION TO THE PERSIAN WARS. 



I=.A.I^T II. 



FROM THE DORIAN INVASION TO THE PERSIAN WARS. B. C. 1100-500. 



LECTURE IX. LyCURGUS AND SPARTAN INSTITUTIONS. 

LYCURGUS. NINTH CENTURY B. C (TIME OF HOMER) 

Lycurgus cannot be regarded sti'ictly as an historical person, yet the institutions 
attributed to him are historical, and some one man may have had a large share in the 
definition and codification of the laws attributed to L. Accoi-ding to the legend 
Lycurgus traveled and studied foreign institutions in order to give his people the best. 
He was most impressed by the Cretan institutions and the laws of Minos. 

2. THE SPARTAN CONSTITUTION. 

Sparta was a strict aristocracy; Lycurgus legislated for the Spartiatse alone. 

{a) Dotcble kingsJiij). There were always two kings ruling jointly in Sparta. 
Legend says (1) that one king represented the Achteans, the other the Dorians; (2) that 
they sprang from the union of two original Dorian settlements; (3) that the rival 
claims of two great Dorian families were thus compromised, and (4) that Aristodemus, 
to whom Laconia was assigned at the Dorian invasion, died before completing the con- 
quest, leaving his kingdom to twin sons, Eurysthenes and Procles. Their mother not 
knowing which was born first the Delphic oracle directed that they should share the 
kingly prerogatives. Tlie plan worked so well that it was perpetuated. 

(b) The Cott.ncil of Elders (Gerousia) numbered tliirty, being composed of twenty- 
eiglit men (Gerontes) who must be not less than sixty years of age, and the two kings 
who presided. The Garousia decided what matters should be laid before the popular 
assembly and had jurisdiction in capital crimes. 

(c) The Popular Assembly was composed of all Spartiatae over 30 years of age. It 
could only decide without debate upon matters laid before it by the Gerousia. 

{d) The five Epliors. Besides the two kings there were five Ephors, or overseers, 
probably the heads of police in the five wards. Later they became the most powerful 
oflacers in the government, overshadowing the kings themselves. 

3. OTHER INSTITUTIONS. 

Returned from his wanderings Lycurgus, having established a form of government, 
assigned a landed estate to every Spartan family. Based upon this land system was 
the most exacting military organization known to history. During his whole active 
life the Spartan was subject to the severest State discipline, compelled to live and 
exercise in public and eat at public messes (Syssitia). An important part of this 
organization was the Cri/pteia, or the detective service, in which the young men en- 
gaged to keep the slaves (often four or five to one of the Spartiatre) in subjection. 
Such institutions made of Sparta the strongest of military camps, but prevented de- 
velopment by crushing out all originality and individual growth. 

4. EDUCATION IN SPARTA. 

The Spartans educated only their bodies. At the age of seven boys were put under 
the direc'iion (,f l)oy trainers, and from that time till they were sixty they enjoyed 
nothing worthy tiie name of private, home life. Physical strength, endurance, coupled 
with brevity of speech, were the ideals. It was a great honor for a boy under the 



32 DORIAN INVASION TO THE PERSIAN WARS. 

age of thirty to be iuvited to the public mess with his elders. He said nothing him- 
self, though eagerly catching every word said by the men. The body was trained and 
hardened incessantly. A Spartan youth could die under the scourge without uttering 
a sound. Foraging, stealing — death by a fox. Spartans, from the time of their admis- 
sion to the Olympian games (B. C. 820), usually took the most important prizes. 

5. THE MESSENIAN WARS. 

The Messenians were probably the mo-^t powerful natives with whom the invading. 
Dorians had to contend. They were not subdued till the middle of the eighth cen- 
tury, when the Fir.-t Messenian War (743-724) resulted in the confiscation of their land 
and the reduction of themselves to a tributary condition. 

The Second Messenian War (645-628) resulted, through the aid rendered by the 
inspiring sentiments of the Athenian poet, Tyrtjeus, in the complete subjec-tion of 
Messenia. Many of the inhabitants lied to Sicily, founding Messana, while those who 
remained became Helots. Sparta had henceforth no rival but Athens. 

Read: Curtius's History of Greece, Vol. I; Grote, Holm, and Abbott loc. cit.; also 
Oman's History of Greece; Art. "Sparta," "Lycurgus," "Messenia," "Tyrtseus" in Encyc. 
Brit.; Myers's Greece, ch. iv; Plutarch's Lycurgus. 

LECTURE X.— Athens Before the Time of Solon. 

1. CODRUS, THE LAST KING. 

From Theseus [Lecture vii. Note] to Codrus, Athens was ruled by kings. This 
means no more than that Athens was, like other primitive societies, first a kingdom, but 
the times and names of its , kings are entirely legendary. Legend says the king- 
ship came to an end in Athens in the following way: The Oracle foretold that 
in a coming attack of the Dorians upon Athens the Dorians would be suc- 
cessful if the Athenian king were spared. Hearing of this Codrus, in disguise, 
and with a single attendant, attacked some of the Dorian soldiers, who immediately 
slew him. Discovering what had been done, the Spartans retired without making an 
attack. Athens was saved and the Athenians honored the sacrifice by never allowing 
another to be caHed king after Codrus. Legendary. 

2. THE ARCHONSHIP. 

After Codrus the kingship, however, perhaps under another name, became elective. 
Si ion a general (Poleniarch) was associated with the king to ensure efficiency in the 
military service. Next a ruler (Archon) was added to the board, only the priestly 
duties of the office being now retn.ined by the king (Archon Basileus) 

In B.C. 752 the dignity of the kingly office was still further discounted by limit- 
ing the term of office to ten years. After B C. 712 the choice was allowed to be made 
outside the family of Codrus from among all the nobles. In 682 the term of office for 
the Basileus, Poleniarch and Archon was reduced to one year, and sis judges [Thes- 
mothetse] were added, making a boa.rd of nine Archons. 

3. THE ARCHONS AND THE ASSEMBLIES, SEVENTH CENTURY B. C 

The Archon Basileus represented the ancient kingship, but exercised only its 
priestly functions. 

The Arclion Polemarch was commander-in-chief. 

The Archon Eponyinus gave his name to the year and was probably the chief 
executive, since he was often called simply Archon, "Ruler." 



■X 



34 DORIAN INVASION TO THE PERSIAN WARS. 

TLe other six Arclions, Th esmotJtekt or "Judges," performed judicial and clerical 
duties. 

The Areopagus was a council (Boule) composed of ex-Archons holding office for 
life. It elected the magistrates and was the supreme court of Athens. 

The Oeneral Assembly (Ecclesia) was composed of those who in war formed the 
heavy arxned forces. 

4. CYLON. B. C. 625. 

The Eupatrids soon disagreed among themselves about the offices, and about B. C. 
625 Cylon, one of their order, selfishly undertook to sieze the chief power by champion-' 
ing the lower classes against the nobles. He headed a revolt, but was besieged on the 
Acropolis by the Archon Megacles. His followers surrendered on condition that their 
lives should be spared, but as soon as they were well away from the temple of Athena 
they were all nevertheless massacred. 

5. THE CONSTITUTION OF DRACO. B. C 620. 

The revolt of Cylon seems to have led to the appointment of one Draco to revise 
the laws of Athens, so that the differences between the classes might be settled at law. 
He deprived the Areopagus of the right to elect officers and gave it to the Ecclesia. 
The magistrates were not to be henceforth restricted to the Eupatrid class, but might be 
elected from among those who possessed a certain amount of wealth in any class. He 
created a Council of Four Hundred (401), which had oversight of elections and prepared 
matter for the Ecclesia. 

Read : Schoeman's Antiquiiies of Greece, vol. i.; Grote, vol. ii.; Curtius, vol. i.; 
Abbott, also Oman, Zoc. c/i!. ; Art. " Cylon," "Draco," "Megacles," " Codrus," "Areop- 
agus," "Archon," " Ecclesia," in Encyc. Brit. 

LECTURE XL— Colonization and Tyrannies. 

1. THE AGE OF COLONIZATION (B. C- 750-600.) 

The Greeks were prompted to colonization by — 

(a) The increasing numbers, wealtli and trade of the mother cities ; 

(&) Conflict between the wealthy traders of the cities and the oligarchs ; 

(c) The restless, adventurous Greek spirit ; 

(d) Spartan aggression in the Peloponnesus. 

Colonists took fire from the city hearth and carried with them the sympathy of 
the mother city, but nothing more. " There were no political bonds uniting the mother 
city and her daughter colonies." Each colony became an independent city. The 
exception to this was the Cleruchy, a military colony occasionally sent as a garrison 
into a conquered territory to maintain order. The shores of the Mediterranean had 
been practically unoccupied, Phcenicia, the great colonizer of ancient times, having 
been crippled by Assyria, while Lydia, Persia, Macedonia and Rome had not yet risen 
to power. Colonization was under the patronage of the oracle of Delphi. [Why ?] 

2. REGIONS COLONIZED. 

Slag heaps on the promontories of Chalcidice still testify to the presence of mining 
colonies in that region. These colonies were the agents in Hellenizing Macedonia — a 
fact which later so powerfully influenced the history of Greece. 

Byzantium was founded in B. C. 658 on the finest site in the region of the Helles- 
pont — "Build opposite the city of the blind." 

The legend of tie Argonauts [Lecture vii. Note] testifies sufficientlj^ to the 
early colonization of the shores of the Euxine. There also slaves were hunted. Already, 
before the dawn of history, this region had become the battle-ground of nations. (The 
Eastern Question?) 



36 DORIAN INVASION TO THE PERSIAN WARS. 

3. MAGNA GRECIA. 

Spartan aggression early drove out the Messenians and others who flocked to the 
sliores of Italy and Sicily. Here were Jt'ounded Tarenturn, B C. 708; Sybaris (whence 
Sybarite), B. C. 721, and other places in Italy. Syracuse was founded by Corinth, B'. C. 
634, and Naucratis among the Nile mouths and Gyrene, opposite Crete, had been planted 
in Africa. 

4. ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF TYRANNIES, B. C 650-500. 

A "tyrant" was not one who ruled opxjressmely, but one who ruled illegally. In 
the constant struggle which went on between the nobles and the commons it not iin- 
frequently happened that a discontented noble would espouse the cause of the com- 
mons and lead them to victory. A man thus placed by violence at the head of the gov- 
ernment was a "tyrant," though his rule might be ever so mild and beneficent. Still 
many were so cruel that the whole class came to be hated, and an odium has always 
attached to the name. 

Sparta, which was never ruled by a tyrant, used all her influence against tyrannies 

5. THE TYRANTS' SERVICE TO CIVILIZATION. 

The great number of tyrannies which prevailed in Greece during one pretty well 
defined period suflSciently indicates the need of that form of government at a particular 
stage in political development. Society could no longer do without a definite, strong 
organization. Power could be most effectively directed by one man. [Lecture ii., 
section 3]. The particular service of the tyrant was, therefore, to teach society 
obedience by compelling it to obey. When the lesson of obedience had been learned, 
society dismissed its tyrants and proceeded to govern itself. 

Eead : Myers's Greece, Chs. V. and VI. ; Fowler's The City-State of tlie Greeks and 
Romans; Herodotus {conswliing in^es-tov topics); also Grote, Cuitius, Holm, Abbott 
loc. cit.; Cox's Lives of Greek Statesmen. 

Note. — Study further and report: Periander of Corinth, B. C. 625-58-5; Polycrates 
of Samos, B. C. 535-522 ; Phalaris of Agrigentum, and Peisistratus of Athens, B. C. 
560. See Myers's Greece, pp. 92-97, 115-120, and use Encyc. Brit., Smith's Classical 
Dictionary, and similar reference works. 

LECTURE XII.— SOLON'S REFORMS— {I) ECONOMIC, <2) POLITICAL. - 

1. SOLON ARCHON EPONYMUS, B. C. 594. 

Draco's legislation failed because it was not based on economic principles. In less 
than a generation further reform became a necessity. The man chosen for the difficult 
and delicate work of economic, as well as political, reform was Solon. 

Solon was of noble birth, his family reckoning their descent from Poseidon. A 
poet, orator and statesman, he had also the qualities of a soldier. In the war with 
Megara (610-600) for the possession of Salamis, Athens snatched victory out of defeat 
under the influence of the burning words and courageous conduct of Solon (Feigned 
madness?). Solon also took part in the First Sacred War (B. C. 600-590), in which Crisa 
and Cirrha, two small cities which had robbed the Delphian temple, were destroyed by 
the Amphictyonic Council. [What? Lect. vii., sec. 5.] In B.C. 594^ Solon became 
Archon Eponymus, and received authority to reform economic abuses. 

2. THE SEISACHTHIA (REMOVAL OF BURDENS.) 

There were three parties in Athens (a) The Highlanders, peasants of the mountain ; 
(b) The People of the Plain, wealthy mortgage holders ; (e) The Party of the Shore, a 
well-to do middle class — largely traders and foreigners. The People of the Plain 
owned practically all the land. The Highlanders, who were little better than slaves, 
had become too numerous and important a class to be held longer in such bondage. It 



•38 DORIAN INVASION TO THE PERSIAN WARS. 

was the task of bringinj? relief to this class which had been committed to Solon. The 
first measure, whicii he carried out has been called the SeisacTdJiela, because it relieved 
the weaker, despairing class of about one-third of their burdens. The Attic or Euboean 
talent of $1078.87 was adopted as the standard instead of the ^Eginetan talent o'f 
$1630 50. Solon tinkered the coinage. Was he justified in the adoption of such a 
measure? In addition, full amnesty was granted to all who had been deprived of 
political rights. 

3. SOLON'S PROPERTY CLASSES. 

The State was reorganized on the basis of wealth instead of birth. 

(a) Pentacosiomedimni were men who enjoyed an income of at least -500 measures 
of corn and wine. 

(b) KnigMs enjoyed an income of at least 300 measures. 

(c) Zeuffifae at least 150 meanires. 

{d) Thetes were those landowners or laboi'ers and tradesmen whose income was 
less than 150 measures. 

Perhaps this breaking up of the strict lines of the ancient aristocracy of birth 
had the most far-reaching influence of all Solon's reforms. Why? 



4. APPORTIONMENT OF TAXES- 

Taxes were levied on the basis of the property classes in men, ships, horses, and 
arms for military purposes. The first class was divided into forty -eight naucraries — 
ship-groups — twelve in each of the four ancient phylse or tribes. Each naucrary had 
to furnish two ships for the navy and two horses for the army. In the contribution of 
horses the next class below was included also. 

Soldiers drafted from the first three classes were hoplites, while those from the 
lowest class were light armed soldiers. Income from mines, harbor dues, poll tax and 
fines were all turned into the coffers of the State. Extraordinary taxes also were levied 
in proportion to the property classes — the fourth class being exempt from this species 
of tax. [Was that fair ?] 

5. THE SOLONIAN CONSTITUTION. 

(a) The Areopagus was deprived of jurisdiction over murder and arson, which 
were hereafter to be tried by the dicasteries, certain popular jury courts, to member- 
ship in which Solon admitted all the four property classes. The Areopagus was 
guardian of the laws, protector of the State, and censor of public and private morals. 

(&) The Eeclesia was open to members of the fourth property class who were 
thus admitted to participate in elections without the right to hold oSice. At the same 
time fourth class men were admitted to the dicasteries and exempted from taxation. 

(c) The Boule or Council of Four Hundred and One was made to consist of 400, one 
hundred from each of the four phylse. Its chief business was to prepare measures to 
be laid before the Ecclesia. 

{d) The Archons were to be chosen only from the first class, though every citizen 
had a vote. At the expiration of his term of office the Archon became a member of 
the Areopagus for life. Solon allowed any case to be appealed from the Archon's court 
to the dicasteries. [Why so important?] 

Read: Aristotle's Athenian Constitution. Plutarch's Solon; Cox's Lives of 
Greek Statesmen, Solon. See also Art. "Solon," in Encyc. Brit.; "Areopagus," '-Boule," 
"Ecclesia," "Archon" in a good Classical Diet. Continue the authorities noted in last 
lecture and read Botsford's The Athenian Constitution; Myers's Greece, Ch. VII. 



40 DORIAN i:^VASION TO THE PERSIAN M'ARS. 

LECTURE XIIL—ThE AGE OF ClEISTHENES. 

1. TYRANNY ESTABLISHED AT ATHENS, B. C 560 

When Solon liad completed his reforms he went on a long journey traveling in 
Asia, Crete and Egypt. During the ten years of his absence troubles again arose at 
home. The poorer classes were this time led by Peisistratus, wlio, after a severe 
struggle in which Solon now returned took part against him, made himself master of 
the Acropolis [Lect. xi., sec. 5]. An emigration of the Athenian nobles followed. 
Solon himself fleeing with the rest. 

2 THE PEISISTRATIDAE 

Peisistratus was descended from Nestor; to another branch of the same family 
belonged Codrus. The mother of Peisistratus and the mother of Solon were cousins. 
Solon said that aside fronr his ambition there was no better man at Athens than 
Peisistratus. Having in the manner already described made himself master of 
Athens, Peisistratus ruled moderately and wisely. At his death he was succeeded by 
his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, the Peisistratidge, who, for a while, continued their 
father's policy. But after a time Hipparchus insulted a young nobleman named Har- 
modius. He, with his friend Aristogeiton, thereupon made an attempt on the lives of 
the tyrants. Hipparchus was slain, but Hippias escaped. Harmodius was struck down 
by the guards and Aristogeiton was tortured to death. Hippias now became suspicious 
and cruel. Sparta, as usual, took the side of the aristocrats and Athens was soon rid 
forever of tyranny. Hippias was sentenced to perpetual exile and spent the remainder 
of his life at the Persian Court intriguing against the liberties of his country, or in 
the Persian Camp fighting for her enslavement. 

3. CLEISTHENES, B. C 508. 

Cleisthenes was son of Megacles, the notorious Alchmeonid who so cruelly suppressed 
the rebellion of Cylon, and grandson of Cleisthenes, Tyrant of Sicyon. With the ex- 
pulsion of Hippias the conflict between nobles and common people was renewed. Isagoras 
headed the nobles, who wished to destroy Solon's constitution, while the people were 
led by Cleisthenes in a struggle to preserve it. Isagoras was at first successful, and 
established a new constitution, but the interference of the Spartan Cleomenes roused 
Athenian patriotism. Cleisthenes was recalled, B. C. 508, and entrusted with the task 
of revising for the third time the Athenian constitution. [What are the circumstances 
of the other revisions?] 

4: THE CONSTITUTION OF CLEISTHENES. 

In the direction of democracy Cleisthenes went far beyond the point which had 
been reached by Solon. The archonship remained restricted to the first three classes, 
but the four ancient phylae (Celeontes, Hoplites, Argadeis and ^Egicoreis) were politi- 
cally obliterated. In their stead Cleisthenes established ten new tribes, each composed 
of ten denies not contiguous. [Why ?] The phratries were preserved, but as religious 
corporations merely. Every two demes had to furnish and man one trireme. 

(a) The Areopagus probably remained unchanged. 

(6) The Boule or Council was increased to five hundred — fifty from each tribe — 
and each set of fifty (prytany) presided for one-tenth of the year; hence the members 
of the presiding fifty were called pi-ytanies. Instead of four popular assemblies in a 
year there are henceforth to be ten. 

(c) The Archons were greatly weakened by being deprived of the privilege of 
presiding over the popular assembly which was henceforth to be convened on the Pnyx, 
Instead of in the Agora. A presiding ofHcer (Epistates) was chosen by lot every day 
from among the prytanies for the time. 



42 " DORIAN INVASION TO THE PERSIAN WARS. 

[d) The Strategoi were ten generals appointed annually instead of a polemarclius. 
One was selected from each tribe, and they commanded by turns. 

Note 1. The use of the lot in elections was greatly .extended by Cleisthenes. 
Note 2. Appeal from the Archon's court was extended to all cases. 
Note 3. Ostracism was introduced. 

5. SPARTAN JEALOUSY. 

Sparta mianwhile had been perfecting aristocratic government. The increased 
power of the Ephors had reduced the kings to little more than figureheads, while it 
had greatly increased Spartan power. Sparta was as strongly opposed to democracy as 
to tyranny, and hence she had already begun to look upon Athens with a jealous eye. 
At this Sparta claimed the Hegemony over all the Hellenic cantons. 

Read: Art. " Sicyon," " Cleisthenes," and "Ostracism," in Eiicyc. Brit.; Herodo- 
tus 1 , 86 i Myers's Greece, ch. ix. ; Cox's Lives of Greek Statesmen, " Cleisthenes," 
and " Peisistratus." Grote, Curtius, Holm, Abbott, and Oman, lac. cit. 



44 THE PERSIAN ^S^ARS. 



The Persian Wars. 

LECTURE XIV.— Persia and Greece Before Marathon. 

1. PERSIA CONaUERS THE GREEK CITIES OF ASIA MINOR, B. C 544. 

About the middle of the sixth century Cyrus, having made war on' Lydia, asked the 
neigliboring Greek cities to aid him. They refused. When Lydia fell Cyrus was able 
to punish these disobedient subject cities. They were soon reduced to submission, 
many of the inhabitants fleeing rather than become slaves of the Persians. 

2. REVOLT OF THE IONIAN GREEKS, B. C 500. 

For forty years all was quiet, but in B. C. 500 Histiseus, King of Miletus, was cited 
before Darius at Susa. In revenge he and his son, Aristagoras, incited the Milesians 
to revolt. With the aid of Eretria [location?] a.nd Athens, Sardes was captured and 
burnt. Then fortune forsook the insurgents. The Athenian fleet was defeated, and 
the Milesians deported and settled about the mouth of the Tigris [B. C. 494.] Darius 
was then free to chastise the Eretrians and the Athenians, which he at once prepared 
to do. ■ ■ 

3. FIRST PERSIAN INVASION UNDER MARDONIUS. 

Darius sent a strong fleet and a large land force under Mardonius to destroy Athens. 
On the way a few islands were subjugated, also several tribes on the coast of 
Thrace. Ma,cedonia submitted, but a band of Tliracians surprised and routed the 
Persians on land, while the fleet was destroyed off Mount Atlios [location?] by a storm. 
Mardonius withdrew into Asia. Heralds were now sent by Darius to demand earth and 
water — tokens of mbmission — from all the islands and cities of Greece. A few com- 
plied, but Sparta and Athens insulted the heralds — threw them iato a well? 

4. THE SECOND INVASION UNDER DATIS AND ARTAPHERNES. 

The army now sent out had 600 triremes and as many transports, besides 100,000 
infantry and i 0,000 cavalry. On their way across the iEgean sea they destroyed Nasos 
and landed on Euboea. Eretria was taken by storm and the inhabitants slain or sent 
as prisoners to the Great King. The traitor Hippias, who had been banished from Athens 
for cruelty [Lecture xiii., sec. 2], now advised the Persians to make straight for Athens. 
Accordingly they landed on the east coast of Attica, near the field of MARATHON. 

5. STUDY FURTHER AND REPORT. ' 

Lydia, Sardes, Croesus, Cyrus, Media, Persia, Darius, Mardonius, Datis, Artaphrenes, 
Read: Cox's The Greeks a}id tlie Persians; Myers's Greece, ch. x.; Curtius, Grote. 
Holm, Abbott, Oman, loc. ait. 



46 THE PERSIAN WARS. 

LECTURE XV- -ThE BaTTLE OF MARATHON, B. C 490. 

1. THE BATTLE FIELD. 

Get clearly in mind tlie exact geographical location and features of the plain of 
Marathon. The ancient Marathon was probably a little to the south of the modern 
village of that name. The exact site of the battle is not known, though the tumulus 
raised over the Athenian soldiers may still be seen. The plain, six miles long by one 
and a-half to three miles wide, forming almost a crescent on the eastern shore of 
Attica, is watered by the Brilessus. Originally an independent State, with four villages 
(the Attic Tetrapolis.) Marathoti, about twenty-five miles from Athens, was named 
from the hero Marathon, who fled from his father's violence in Sicyon. Inland the 
plain is bounded on all sides by rugged hills and mountains. Shoreward there is a 
square mile of marsh to the nortlt and a smaller marsh to the south. 

2. THE FORCES ENGAGED 

There is no contemporaneous record of the battle of Marathon. It was a genera- 
tion after Marathon when Herodotus, the oldest Greek historian, wrote. The best 
estimates place the Greek forces at 11,000, while the Persians must have numbered 
nearly 100,000. But the Greeks were well disciplined, citizen-soldiers under the com- 
mand of a corp'^ of eleven experienced and politically powerful generals. The 
Persians, on the other hand, were little better than a horde of mercenaries seeking 
plunder or adventure in strange lands. Of the Greek forces Athens furnished 10,000, 
while Platfea sent unasked her whole fighting force, which, however, amounted to no 
more than 1,000 men. Sparta had been urged to send aid, but delayed to comply till 
after their religious celebration at the approaching full moon. Thus Attica, a territory 
of about 700 square miles, was left almost alone to meet Persia, which stretched from 
India to the Hellespont, and included Egypt. 

3. THE BATTLE. 

The traitor Hippias was with the Persian generals, giving them full advantage of 
his familiarity with the country, as well as with the character of the people, while at 
Athens his partisans were intriguing for his restoration, even at the cost of Athenian 
independence. Hence the urgency of the Greek Strategol to bring on an engagement. 
The Greeks were commanded by the ten Strategoi and the Polemarch, Callimachus. 
Five of the Strategoi were for immediate battle, five for delay. Miltiades was eager 
for battle and his courage and eloquence finally prevailed. The Polemarch, perhaps 
influenced by Miltiades, gave the casting vote for battle. Miltiades, contrary to custom, 
was made commander-in-chief indefinitely, and preparation was made for immediate 
action. September 12, B C. 490, tJie battle was begun about noon by a charge of the 
Greek infantry. Miltiades adapted the traditional tactics of his time, massing his 
troops on the wings. The Persians were surprised, fought with little organization, the 
afternoon sun blazing in their faces, and were completely routed with a loss of over 
6,000 in killed and wounded. The Greeks lost 192. 

4 RESULTS OF THE BATTLE. 

More than a battle was decided at Marathon. Here was settled once for all 
whether the active, organized, progressive civilization of the West, or the sluggish, 
demoralized, stagnant civilization of the East was to stamp itself permanently upon the 
human race. The region of the Hellespont was then, as now, the battle-ground between 
eastern and western peoples and customs. In the Greeks were typified all the best 
elements of western culture, while the Persians were among the best representatives of 
eastern civilization. Victory had steadily waited upon the Persian afms, and if the 
Greeks liad been overthrown at Marathon no other power could have withstood the 
triumphant advance of Darius till the known world had fallen paralyzed at his feet. 



48 THE PERSIAN WARS. 

But this was not to be. Miltiades and his Athenians immortalized themselves and 
saved the liberty, individuality, learning and art of Greece to the world. Since Marathon 
there has never been a question of the superiority of the West over the East, of valor 
over indolence. 

5. MILTIADES. 

Miltiades was the son of Cimon, the elder, and father of C'imon, the younger. He 
; was sent by Peisistratus to be tyrant of the Chersonesus. [Where situated?] The 
nobles had given trouble to his deceased brother, and Miltiades determined to put them 
down. He feigned deep mourning for his brother till the nobles came in a body to 
condole with him; then Miltiades had the whole company seized and thrown into prison, 
after which he ruled despotically by the aid of a band of mercenaries. 

After the defeat of M:irdonius [what were the circumstances?] Miltiades coun- 
selled the destruction of his bridges, that the Persians thus entrapped might be utterly 
destroyed. Miltiades was soon compelled to flee to Athens. After Marathon he used 
a public trust for private purposes, was tried and condemned for deceiving the people, 
but had his sentence commuted to a fine of fifty talents, the amount of his misappro- 
priation. Within a few days he died of a wound received on his last disastrous 
expedition, and the fine was paid by his son, Cimon. 

Read : Creasy's Decisive Battles of the World, ch. i ; Myers's Greece, ch. xi.; Art. 
"Marthou," "Miltiades," in Encyc. Brit.; the standard works on Greece as before cited. 

LECTURE XVI.— The Battle of Teermopylm, B. C. 480. 

1. PREPARATIONS FOR A THIRD INVASION. 

Darius, when he heard of the disaster at Marathon, at once began preparations for 
an invasion on a large scale. Requisitions for larger numbers of troops and more 
abundant supplies were sent to the provinces. Egypt [incited by the Greeks?] rebelled, 
and by the time the insurrection had been quelled, so that prepai'ations might proceed, 
Darius died. "The evil that men do lives after them." The vengeful feelings of 
Darius sprang forth with new vigor in his son, Xerxes. Preparations went forward with 
renewed energy. Xerxes was to lead the expedition in person. Great magazines of 
supplies for three years were collected along the route, which was to be overland, by 
way of Asia Minor and Thrace, crossing the Hellespont on a bridge. It was not till the 
spring of B. C. 480 that the immense host of 900,000 men was ready to move from Sardes 
under the command of Xerxes himself. 

2. XERXES'S MARCH. 

Leaving Sardes, the capital of Lydia, in the spring of B. C. 480, Xepxes proceeded 
in a northwesterly direction, reaching the coast opposite Lesbos. Continuing his march 
thence along the shore, he touched the Hellespont at Abydos, which had been connected 
by a pontoon bridge four miles long, with Sestus on the opposite shore. Bridge 
destroyed by storm; water scourged. Bridge rebuilt; crossing begun just at sunrise; 
seven days occupied in crossing. [See Herodotus on this point.] At Doriscus, a short 
distance from the Hellespont, Xerxes reviewed and numbered his host. According to 
Herodotus, the army now numbered 2,641,610 men, gathered from forty-six nations, 
besides an equal number of attendants, making a horde of over 5,000,000 people. This, 
of course, is incredible, but it may be true that Herodotus had the largest single army 
ever mustered. To save the fleet from the dangers of Mount Athos [what had hap- 
pened here before?] a canal was cut at Acanthus. Passing the head of the Thermaic 
gulf, Xerxes continued his march through the Vale of Tempe, which the Greeks had 
abandoned, to Larissa, the southern gate of the pass, where the Greeks were so sadly 
beaten in the recent brief struggle witli the Turks. Thence the road lay through 
unobstructed country to Thermopylte. 



i 



50 THE PERKfAN WARS. 

3. THERMOPYLAE. 

Central Greece is marked off from Tliessaly and Epirus by two deep indentations, 
the Ambracian gulf on the west and the Malian gulf on tlie east. The Malian gulf 
extends far inland to the very foot of precipitous cliffs, which here form a well-nigh 
impassable barrier between northern and central Gi'eece. Along the southern shore of 
the Malian gulf these cliffs came down within a few feet of the water, so that two 
teams might scarcely pass. Just at the narrowest point hot springs gushed from the 
hills; hence the name of the pass — "Hot Gates." Having abandoned the Vale of 
Tempe, the Greeks, in a council at Corinth, had decided to make their stand at 
Thermopylse, or " Hot Gates." 

4. THE STRENGTH OF THE GREEKS. 

Difficult as it always was to bring about any real concert of action on the part of 
the many jealous States of Greece, it was perhaps in the presence of the greatest danger 
that ever threatened the country that rivalry and discord rose to the highest pitch. 

To the council at Corinth, B. C. 480, the Argives refused aid because Sparta would 
not divide with her the supreme command. Gelo, tyrant of Syracuse, though able and 
eager to send a strong force (50,000 men), refused because the Spartan embassy would 
not promise him the chief command. The Corcyrfeans promised aid, but delayed 
sending it till they could be sure of the issue. The Cretans refused because the Oracle 
reminded them how they had suffered for having aided Menelaus [under what circum- 
stances ?] in a former conflict between Greece and Asia. Only sixteen cities of all 
the Hellenic world could be induced to act, and some of these were nearly paralyzed 
by a strong Persian party among the Greeks themselves. Under such discouragements 
the council, which liad met chiefly at the earnest solicitation of Themistocles, was 
dissolved, and disunited Greece left practically at the mercy of the Persians. 

5. THE BATTLE- JULY, B. C 480. 

The Persian fleet, making its way along the coast, had appeared off Artimisium, 
where the Greek fleet, under Themistocles, lay at anchor. While the land battle was in 
progress this fleet was, perhaps, on the same day engaged with the Persian fleet in an 
indecisive conflict. 

On land Leonidas, with his three hundred Spartans and six thousand allies, 
gallantly repulsed assault after assault of the Persian host, till the traitor Ephialtes 
showed Xerxes the way over Mount GEta, by which a Persian force was led to attack 
the Greeks in the rear. Hearing of this, Leonidas ordered a retreat of all but his three 
hundred Spartans. These died to a man on the spot which they had been sent to 
defend. The road to Athens was now open. 

Note. — Write an essay of five hundred words or over, comparing the battle of 
Thermopylae with the battle of Marathon. 

Read: Art. "Thermopylfe," "Leonidas," "Themistocles," in Encyc. Brit.; the 
authorities on Greece, as before cited ; Herodotus; Myers's Greece, ch. xii. and xiii. 

LECTURE XVII.— From Themopylae to Plataea 

1. THE DESTRUCTION OF ATHENS 

Xerxes marched straight upon Athens. The city had been deserted, save a garrison 
on the Acropolis. This stronghold was taken by storm and its public buldings, together 
with the rest of the city, burned to the ground. At last the punishment which Darius 
had planned for Eretria and Athens, which had aided his rebellious subjects, [recall the 
circumstances,] had been inflicted. But the "wooden walls" of Athens were yet to 
vindicate the wisdom of their designer [Themistocles had urged upon the Athenians 
the building of a navy] and Greece was again to rise triumphant out of her deep 
humiliation. 



52 THE PlCRSIAX WARS. 

2. THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS, SEPTEMBER 20, B. C 480. 

The Greek fleet had iQeanwMle been united and reinforced under the Spartan 
Eurybiades, but still numbered only half .as many ships as the Persians. Protected in 
the Saronic gulf by the island of Salamis, [locate these poinls,] the Greeks were more 
than half afraid to attack their powerful foe. Themistocles by a stratagem [what was 
it?] compelled them to fight. Xerxes sat on a seat prepared for him on a neigboring 
cliff and watched what was, i^erhaps, the most picturesque sea fight of ancient times. 
Greek valor at last prevailed over mere numbers and the Persians were compelled to 
retire with the loss of two hundred phips, while the Greeks lost only forty. Xerxes 
retreated, leaving Mardoiiious with 200,000 men in Thessaly. Reconstruction of Athens 
begun. 

3. FOURTH INVASION, PLATAEA, SEPTEMBER, B C 479. 

Mardonius in vain offered the Athenians a separate independence if they would 
forsake the cause of Greece. Reinforced by Artabazus, he again marched on Athens, 
which was again deserted becausp the Spartans were too slow with assistance, and what 
had been built was destroyed. At length the Peloponnesian army, numbering 90,000 
men, under Pausanius, crossed the Isthmus and Mardonius retired. After much 
manceuvering and some rather discreditable conduct, [what did he do?] Pausanius was 
about to retreat without a battle when the Persians suddenly attacked him at Platsea. 
He now fought bravely. The Persians were routed, their camp captured, Mardonius 
slain and the independence of Greece fully recovered. 

4. THE BATTLE OF MYCALE, B. C 479. 

While the Greeks on land were routing the Persians at Plattea, their fleet, which, 
after Salamis had taken the offensive, was — perhaps on the same day — literally destroy- 
ing the Persian fleet by the promontory of Mycale. [Find this on the map.] Strangely 
enough, this naval (?) battle was fought on land. The Persians, fearing to meet the 
Greeks, had beached their ships on the promontory of Mycale and thrown up entrench- 
ments. The Greeks landed, destroyed the beached ships, captured the Persian camp 
and scattered the entire host Athens rebuilt. Opposition of Sparta. Stratagem of 
Themistocles. 

5. Study further, and report : Leonidas, Hippias, Themistocles, Xerxes, Pausanius, 
Aristides, Eurybiades, Salamis, Platsea, the Pyrfeus, Mycale. Write an essay of five 
hundred words or more on "The Fourth Persian Campaign in Greece." 

Read : Cox's Lives of Greek States-men,"- Themistocles," " Pausanius," "Aristides ;" 
Myers's Greece, chs. xiv. and xv. Art. in^^Encyc. Brit, on most of the subjects for report. 
See also Smith's or some other good Classical Dictionary. Authorities as before cited ; 
Plutarch's "Themistocles." 



54 THE HEGEMONY OF ATHENS, OR THE PERICLEAN AGE. 



:^.£^-RT x-\r. 



The Hegemony of Athens, or the Periclean Age. 



LECTURE XVIII.— From My c ale to Pericles. 

1. JEALOUSY BETWEEN SPARTA AND ATHENS 

When the expatriated Athenians returned to the site of their city they found every- 
thing in ruins. Peloponnesian troops had dealt the blow which sent the Persians 
reeling from Greece, while the ravages of war had left Central Greece little better than 
a waste. Such disasters seemed only to inspire the Athenians with redoubled energy. 
Under the leadership of Themistocles, the Odysseus of Athens, they began to rebuild 
with wonderful speed and to enclose the city with strong walls. Sparta, still in com- 
mand of the Greek fleet, which was now liberating one after another of the Greek 
cities from Persian dominion, sent an embassy to dissuade the Athenians from walling 
their city. [On what grounds ?] How did Themistocles gain time for completing the 
walls before an answer was given? The jealousy which nearly overthrew Greece in 
the Persian wars was already becoming a direct rivalry for headship in Greek affairs. 

2. THE DELIAN CONFEDERACY, B. C 477. 

Sparta lost the Hegemony in Greece through the outrageous conduct of Pausanius. 
[Lecture xvii., sec. 5.] After Platsea, Pausanius took to himself all the glory of the 
victory, becoming haughty and insolent toward his subordinates. Presently he con- 
ceived the idea of becoming tyrant of all Hellas through the aid of Xerxes, whose son- 
in-law and Satrap he had offered to become. But his domineering nature meanwhile 
became unbearable. His men told him that only the memory of Platsea saved his life, 
and he was recalled to Sparta to give account of his conduct. The fleet now looked to 
Athens for leadership, and a league was formed under the presidency of the Athenian, 
Aristides, with headquarters on the little island of Delos. Such was the beginning of 
the Deliau Confederacy and the Hegemony of Athens in Greek politics. 

3. THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE 

No sooner was Athens at the head of affairs than a rivalry broke out between 
Cimon and Themistocles. Themistocles was ostracized. [Describe ostracism.] Then 
Cimon completed the liberation of the Greek cities by the destruction of a Persian 
fleet and army at the mouth of the Eurymedon in Pamphilia, B. C. 466. [Find the 
place on the map.] But the Confederacy was already rapidly becoming an Empire. 
Several smaller cities, which had objected to membership in the League, had been com- 
pelled to join and to furnish their quota of ships. About B. C. 457, the common 
treasury was moved from Delos to Athens and contributions were first allowed, later 
required, to be in money instead of ships and men, thus giving up the military and- 
and. naval power to Athens, while the other cities fell to the position of subjects. The 
Athenian Empire was firmly established. 

4 THIRD MESSENIAN WAR. B. C 464-456. 

This war was caused by an earthquake; find out the particulars. The Messenians 
in their second struggle with Sparta [recall the points] had been reduced to the con- 
dition of helots. These now led a general revolt of Spartan helots who occupied the 



.56 THE HEGEMONY OF ATHENS, OR THE PERICLEAX AGE. 

stronghold of Mount Itliome. Athens, when appealed to by Sparta for aid, sent a 
detachment by the advice of Cimon against that of Pericles, which was soon, on 
account of suspicion, sent back by the Spartans. The Athenians thereupon allied 
themselves with the Argives, Sparta's strongest enemies. This was the beginning of 
the first serious outbreak between Sparta and Athens. The Me.ssenians having been 
reduced to submission, the Spartans now joined the Boeotians in a war with Athens. 
The Athenians were defeated in the battle of Tanagra, B. C. 457, and an armistice was 
concluded. 

5 RENEWED WAR WITH PERSIA. 

Though there had not always been actual fighting, a state of war had never 
ceased to exist between the Greeks and tlie Persians siVice their first hostile meeting 
on the plains of Marathon. The Greek dependencies of Persia had one after another 
gained their independence and Athens had aided an Egyptian rebellion. In B. C. 449, 
they sent a naval expedition of two hundred ships against the Persians in Cyprus, 
where they gained a brilliant victory. Soon after this negotiations for peace were 
begun and the independence of all the Hellenes was acknowledged. 

Read: Myers's Greece ch. xvi. and xvii. Art. "Delos," "Aristides," "Helots," 
"Peroeci," "Messenia," "Cimon," in Encyc. Brit., or in a Classical Dictionary. Authori- 
ties as before cited; Cox's T7ie Atlienian Empire. 

LECTURE xix— Athens Under the Administration of Pericles. 

1. OSTRACISM OF CIMON 

Moved by the discourteous dismissal of her forces sent at the instance of Cimon, 
[Lecture xviii., sec. 4,] the Athenians ostracized Cimon. This brought his rival, 
Pericles, to the head of affairs at Athens. The first move of Pericles's party was against 
the Areopagus, the last stronghold of aristocracy. Led by Ephialtes the people 
stripped this ancient, honorable assembly of all its functions, save jurisdiction in 
homicide and arson. Here was nothing less than a revolution. Supreme oversight in 
all important matters was taken from this venerable, aristocratic body and given to the 
dicasteries, [What were they ?J 

2. PERICLES 

Pericles was tlie son of Xanthippus and Agariste, who were both of the noblest 
blood in Athens. He was carefully educated under such teachers as Zeno of Elea, aild 
Anaxagoras, who continued to be his intimate friend till compelled to flee from Athens. 
It was during the greatest public activity of Pericles that Socrates grew to manhood. 
Pericles came into prominence as leader of the democratic party against Cimon, who 
was regarded as strongly tainted with " Laconism." So wonderful seemed his powers 
of oratory that they described him when speaking as " thunder and lightning.' He 
was an able soldier, leading tlie Athenian'^ in several successful engagements. In 
the campaign against Samos he was accompanied by the poet Sophocles. About B. C. 
454 Cimon had been called from exile, but the aristocratic party was falling into disre- 
pute, and soon lost all power in Athenian politics. Pericles was now supreme. Perhaps 
the strongest claim of Pericles to the attention of men is the fact that with all his 
varied and marvelous powers he never used any of them for mere selfish ends. [Con- 
trast Miltiades.] He made Athens the glory of Greece and of the world for all time, 
but himself died poor. 

3. PERICLES'S STATESMANSHIP. 

(a) It was under Pericles that the Long Walls [describe these] connecting the 
Piraeus and Phalerum with the walls of Athens were built. 

(J) The supremacy of Athens was made sure by the redu 'tion of several States 
which had not before recognized her authority, and also by a wise administration of 
public affairs in general. 



58 THE HEGEMONY OF ATM BN'S, OR THE PEIUCLEAX AGE. 

(c) It was through Pericles that at least a tacit peace was finally established with 
Persia. 

{(]) Like Themistocles, Pericles saw the importance of a strong naval equipment, 
and no expense was spared to make Athens the foreino.st sea power of the time. 

(e) But the most popular measures of Pericles were those which provided for tlie 
payment out of tlie public treasury of the soldiers, Heliasts [who were they ?] and other 
officers of the State, and even provided entertainment in the theaters at the public 
expense. 

4. CITIZENSHIP AND COLONIZATION UNDER PERICLES 

Though a democi'at, Pericles was liimself of noble birth and understood perfectly 
the value of blood. He limited citizenship to those of pure Hellenic blood, and at the 
same time gave tlie most responsible duties in the State into the hands of "citizens." 
This led to discontent among the lower orders, who were deprived of any part in the 
government, and for these Pericles established numerous colonies in southern Italy 
and in Thrace. 

5. ART AND ARCHITECTURE UNDER PERICLES. 

1. "Contemporary with Pericles were (a) the tragic dramatists iEschylus, 525-456; 
vSophocles, 496-405 ; Euripides, 480-406 ; [b) the comic dramatist Aristophanes, 456- 
380; (c) the historians, Herodotus, 484-424, Thucydides, 471-396; id) the sculptor 
Phidias; (e) the architects Ictinus, Callicrates and Mnesicles ; (/') the painter Polygno- 
tus [birds deceived ?] , (g) the philosophers, Socrates, 469-399 ; Zeno of Elea ; Pro- 
tagoras; Aspa-sia of Miletus." 

2. The Acropolis, as it is known today, is the Acropolis adorned by Pericles. The 
mention of the Parthenon [describe this building] is sufficient to suggest the character 
of his buildings, to say nothing of the Odeon [find what this was] and the theater of 
Dionysius at the foot of the Acropolis, the Propyla? at its summit, and the temple of 
Nike Apteros, the Erectheum, the porch of the Caryatides, while near the Parthenon 
stood the colossal statue of Athena Promachos, made from the spoils of Marathon, 
and holding aloft a glittering spear point which could be seen even from the sea. 

Note: Read and report as many of the proper names in section 5 of this lecture 
as you can find. 

Bead: Plutarch's Pericles; Myers's Greece, pp. 254-269; Abbott's Pericles in 
"Heroes of the Nations Series." Standard authorities as cited above. 



60 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 



THE PELOPON NESIAN WAR. B. C. 431404. 

LECTURE XX.— From the Outbreak to the Peace of Nicias. 

1. CAUSES. 

There were four main catcses which operated to brint{ about war between Sparta 
and Athens. 

(1) Difference of race and institutions. Sparta was, Dorian, sullen, conservative. 
Athens was Ionian, versatile, prog-ressive Sparta was aristocratic, Athens democratic. 

(2) "Envy of the Dorian confederacy at the power of Athens." Sparta was dis- 
tinctively a military State. She seemed at first to regard herself and to be regarded 
as the natural leader of the Greeks in war. Through selfishness she had lost that 
prestige during the Persian wars, yet Sparta was not of the kind to sit tamely down 
and leave Athens to the undisputed leadership which had been so honorablj^ won. 

(3) 'Ambition of the Athenians." 

(4) Discontent of Athenian subject cities. Any one of these was in ancient times 
sufficient to provoke war. The immediate occasion of hostilities was found in (1) the 
interference of Athens in a w;ir between Corinth and her colony Corcyra; (2) the inter- 
ference of Corinth in favor of her colony Potidfea [where?] which had revolted from 
the Athenian League. 

2. OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES AT PLATAEA, B. C 431. 

Study a map of the opposing States. 

Corinth complained to Sparta and the Spartans declared that Athens had broken 
the armistice which had been concluded in B. C. 445, which recognized Sparta and 
Athens as equal, independent States. The Peloponnesians besides the peninsula 
(except Achaia and Argos in the beginning) were joined by the Megareans, Boeotians, 
Opuntian Locirans, and Phocians [why?]. The Athenians, besides almost all the 
islands and coasts of the Archipelago and regions beyond, were joined by Platsea, 
Corcyra, Zacinthus, Ciiios, Lesbos, Thessalians and Acarnanians. 

The strength of Athens lay in her natal power; that of Sparta in compact terri 
tory and concerted action. The two powers were pretty evenly matched ; the conflict 
proved to be the fiercest of ancient times. Fighting began at Plataea. The gates were 
treacherously opened to a band of Thebans. Even then the attacking force was driven 
off by the Platteans, or else captured and cruelly slaughtered. 

3. THE ARCHIDAMIAN WAR, B. C 431-425. 

The Spartan allies were now rapidly collected on the Isthmus, under the command 
of King Archidimus. Pericles, now old, but still influential, directed aft'airs at Athens. 
All the inhabitants of the surrounding country were gathered within the walls of the 
city. The Spartans advanced, ravaging the country (it was harvest time) more'i'uth- 
lessly than the barbarians had done. But in this they destroyed their own means of 
support, and were soon compelled to retire for want of provisions. [See Pericles's 
funeral oration, Thucydides II., 34). The next year the Spartans invaded again, and 
again the Athenians were crowded within their walls. A terrible pestilence broke out 



62 THE PELOPONNESFAN AVAR. 

(malignant typhoid fever, due to the filthy condition of the city?) sweeping. off one- 
fourth of the inhabitants. Among other victims of the plague was Pericles. The 
Athenians win naval battles and capture a few cities. Platfea captured and destroyed 
by Sparta, B. C. 427. Those wlio survived the siege were executed. Attica suffered 
two other invasions — five in all — during this period. 

4. ATHENIAN AGGRESSION. SPHACTERIA. B. C- 425-422. 

The Athenians seized and fortified Fylos, a rocky promontory not more than forty 
miles from Sparta. Spartans shut \\\) in Sphacteria, which now becomes the centre of 
the war. Truce arranged. Sparta to give up her ships, merely as a guaranty of good 
faith during the truce. Vain effort to conclude peace. Athens then refuses to give up 
the Spiartan ships. Sphacteria taken — first Spartans that ever surrendered (?) "Where 
are your brave men — all killed?" "The arrow would be a valua.ble weapon if it 
picked out the brave." 

Soon after this Corcyra was surrendered to the Atlienians. The next year (424) the 
island of Cythera was taken, and Laconia was in a state of blockade. These successes 
were partly balanced by the loss of Delium [where situated], after which the theater 
of war was shifted by the Spartan Brasidas to the Thracian shore. Athens attacked 
through her tributaries. Thucydides, sent to check him, was too slow — banished from 
Athens. In the leisure thus enforced he wrote his remarkable history of the Polopon- 
nesian war. 

5. AMPHIPOLIS ANB THE PEACE OF NICIAS. 

Before the force and policy of Brasidas revolt spread rapidly among the Thracian 
dependencies of Athens, still Sparta kept striving for peace. Truce for one year — not 
observed by Brasidas. 

The Athenians gathered a force which was placed under the command of Nicias and 
Cleon for the purpose of recovering the cities which Brasidas had taken. A severe battle 
was fought at Amphipolis [location ?], in which the Athenians were defeated. Cleon 
was killed and Brasidas mortally wounded. With these two war dogs dead, peace was 
soon concluded. Both sides were to restore all conquests and prisoners, and neither 
was to invade the other for fifty years. 

Read: Plutarch's JVlcias ; Thucydides, ii.-iv.; Myers's Greece, ch. xviii. Arts. 
"Demosthenes," and "Thucydides," in Encyc. Brit.; "Nicias," "Brasidas," "Cleon," in 
a good Classical Dictionary. Other authorities as before. 

LECTURE XXL— The Sicilian Expedition and the Decelean War. 

1. PERIOD OF RECOVERY ANB PREPARATION, B. C 421-415. 

The Peace of Nicias made a pause in a struggle in which for ten years four-fifths 
of continental Greece had hurled itself in annual ravaging incursions upon the other 
fifth, or else employed her best generals (as Brasidas) in promoting the revolt of 
Athenian subject cities. Added to this Athens had suffered from a terrible plague, 
while Sparta had escaped almost untouched. [Why had not Athens been crushed? 
See Creasy, ch. ii.] 

In the interval of imperfect peace secured by the so-called Peace of Nicias, Athens 
recovered with marvelous speed. She soon allied herself with Argos, which had 
refused to acknowledge the terms of peace, and claimed her ancient Hegemony in the 
Peloponnessus. This new alliance, which was formed under the spell of Alcibiades's 
personal influence, came to grief, however, at Mantinea [location?] B. C. 418, where the 
allies were defeated in the most important battle since Delium. [Lecture xx., sec. 4.] 
The hope of renewed Argive Hegemony was blasted forever. Athens next turned, B. 
C. 4x6, to Melos [locate and describe], which was taken, as the Athenians themselves 
owned, for no other provocation than that it was too weak to defend itself. 



64 THE PEr.OPONiNKSfAN W'AK, 

2. ALCIBIADES URGES AN ATTACK UPON SYRACUSE. 

Alcibiades traced bis descent from Ay.ix. His youth was spent in utter disregard 
of all moral, nr even decent, pa'inciples, yet lie possessed a physical magnetism which 
the susceptible Athenians could not resist. It is not strange that such a people, undei' 
such a leader, should come to ruin. History has characterized Alcibiades as " the 
most complete example of genius without principle," while the downfall of the most 
brilliant empire of ancient times must be charged to his generous treachery. Such a 
man it was who counseled tlie Athenians to respond to a call for aid from the little 
city of Egesta on the western coast of Sicily. Nicias strove against the proposed 
expedition with all his might, but in vain. 

3. THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION, B- C 415-413. 

In a meeting of the Ecclesia, Nicias and Alcibiades discussed at length the question 
of a powerful expedition, not merely in aid of Egesta, but against Sicily, and especially 
Syracuse. Alcibiades ca,rried tlie day, and preparations were immediately begun for 
the most important undertaking to which even Athens had yet set herself. The best 
equipped, though not the largest, fleet which Athens had ever mustered sailed out of 
the Pira?us in midsummer, B. C. 41-5, under command of Alcibiades, Lamachus, and 
Nicias. Landed on Sicily, they immediately began the siege of Syracuse, on whose 
result hung the future dominion of the world. Marathon liad decided that the West 
and not the East should dominate world history. [Lecture xv.]. Syracuse was to 
decide whether western civilizUion was to be Greek or Roman. The Athenians were 
defeated [describe the conflict], and the Athenian Empire crumbled rapidly to insignifi- 
cance. Alcibiades summoned to Athens. His revenge. 

4. CONSTERNATION AT ATHENS. 

The Athenians were paralyzed when at last they realized the extent of the Sicilian 
disaster. But tliey soon recovered themselves and began to raise another army, though 
a full third of their fighting force had perished before Syracuse. Sparta was jubilant, 
now standing at the head of a hostile world which seemed to be bearing surely down 
upon devottd Athens. 

The important Island of Chios revolted at this crisis with many other Athenian 
allies. Then a conspiracy at Athens led to the recall of Alcibiades, who soon restored 
local order, but could not recover Athenian prestige. Euboea had been lost meanwhile, 
and the future seat of the war was to be the region of the Hellespont. 

5. FROM THE RETURN OF ALCIBIADES TO AEGOSPOTAMI, B. C- 409-405. 

The revival of aristocracy in Athens and the attempt of the Four Hundred 
oligarchs to subvert the Constitution had led to tlie recall of Alcibiades to the com- 
mand of the fleet, but not till after lie had traitorously induced the Persians to take 
up arms against Athens. After several engagements of less importance he succeeded 
in annihilating the Peloponnesian fleet in the battle of Cyzicus, February, B. C. 410. 
He followed up this triumph by the capture of Byzantium, and then, B. C. 408, returned 
to Athens after seven years of the blackest treachery ever practiced by mortal against 
his country. Yet the silly Athenians received him with open arms, repealed his sen- 
tence and gave him supreme command. On account of a single oversight [What?] he 
was as readily deposed, and died B. C. 404. 

After the Athenian victory at Argenuste, B. C 406, the Spartan, Lysander, inflicted 
defeat after defeat upon the Athenians, and ended in annihilating their fleet at ^gos- 
potami [locate the place,] B. C. 405. Slaughter of 30,000 prisoners. Athens invested 
and starved into surrender, April, B. C. 404. Long Walls destroyed. Democracy 
replaced by the government of the Thirty Tyrants. All ships of war but twelve given 
up to Sparta. 

Read: Plutarch's Alcibiades, Tinwleon and Nicias; Myers's (rreece, chs. xx. 
and XXI.; Creasy's Decisive Battles of tli.e World, ch. ir. 



6() FROM THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR TO THE FALL OF CORIXTH. 

FROM THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR TO THE FALL OF CORINTH. 

LECTURE XXII.^ThE HeGEMONY OF SpARTA. 

1. THE THIRTY TYRANTS. 

At Athens tlie rule of the Thirty Tyrants was a veritable "reign of terror." 
Critias was the most notorious. The wealthy were put to death for their riches. At 
last, one of the Thirty put Critias to death. Then Thrasybulus put himself at the 
head of the fugitive democrats and defeated the Thir'y. Critias slain. Democracy 
re-established. 

2. THE ANABASIS. XENOPHON, B. C 401. 

Xerxes was married once before, once after he became king. The eldest son, Arta- 
xerxes, of the first wife, succeeded to the throne. Cyrus, eldest son of the second wife, 
was made Satrap in Asia Minor, though he claimed the throne. In B. C. 401, he under- 
took an expedition to establish his claim. In return for aid in the Peloponnesian War 
the Spartans were asked for a contingent. About 13,000 Greeks under Clearchus joined 
Cyrus's army of 100,000 men. They traversed the whole Persian Empire without 
resistance till they reached Cunaxa, near Babylon. Here, in a memorable battle, Cyrus 
was slain-. After the battle the Greek generals were decoyed [how?] and slain. Tlie 
remaining Greeks, about 10,000, chose for their leader the historian Xenoplion, under 
whom tliey executed the most masterly retreat on record. They made their way over 
the sandy plains of the Tigris and the rngged mountains of Armenia to Trapezus 
[Trebizond] on the Euxiiie, a distance of about 1,500 miles, all the way exposed to 
attacks by hostile tribes. 

A contemporaneous event was the execution of Socrates, at Athens, by hemlock. r^ 

3. WAR BETWEEN SPARTA AND PERSIA. J 

Tissaphernes, whom Cyrus had supplanted in Asia Minor, now undertook to punish 
the Greek cities of that region for the part which they liad taken in the Anabasis. 
The Spartans came. to their aid. Then the Persians bribed Corinth to attack Sparta. 
This was known as — 

4. THE CORINTHIAN WAR, B. C. 395-387. 

Sparta had steadily increased in naval power since ^Egospotami [recall the particu- 
lars] but in the battle of Cnidus, B. C. 394, her fleet was desti'oyed and her maritime 
power forever humbled. Athens was now rebuilding the Long Walls [when destroyed?] 
by Persian aid, and Sparta, fearing for her supremacy in Greece, sent Antalcidas to con- 
clude peace with Persia. The result was the Peace of Antalcidas by which infamous 
compact Persia received all the Greek cities of Asia Minor, Cyprus and Cladzomense. 
Athens received Lemnos, Imbros, Scyros. All other islands or cities of Greece were to 
remain independent; no city was to rule over another. Recall the conduct of Athens 
under similar circunistances, Lecture xvii., sec. 3. 

5. THE BATTLE OF LEUCTRA, B. C 371. 

Sparta assumed the responsibility of making all cities autonomous, and ended by 
reducing them all to dependence upon herself. Having pushed her interference to 
tyranny, Thebes rebelled, and under Pelopidas, her rescuer, she was able to maintain 
independence of Sparta. 



OS Fi;OM TMK PELOPO^■^■ESIA^•^WAK TO THE FALL OF CORINTH. 

The Tliebaii Epaininoiidas now came to the front as the reviver of the Boeotian 
League. Athens headed another league like the Delian. Sparta decided that the time 
had arrived for her to act. She sent Cleombrotus against the Thebans, who marched 
out under Epaminondas, and defeated the Spartans at Leuctra, B. C. 3v 1. The principle 
of the Phalanx which had been adopted by Miltiades at Marathon was here nearly 
perfected by Epaminondas, from whom it was passed on to Philip of Macedon and 
Alexander. 

Read: Plutarch's Pelopiclas, Ayesilcms, Lysander; Art. "Xenophon," "Arta- 
xerxes," and "Epaminondas," in Encyc. Brit.; Myers's Greece, chs. xxii., xxin.; Sankey's 
The Spartan and Thehan Supremacies; Xenophon's Anabasis. 

Note.— Report in class " Thrasybulus," " Critias," "The Thirty Tyrants," 
" Cunaxa," the " Anabasis." 

LECTURE XXIII.—FROM LeUCTRA TO Ch^ronea, B. C 371-338. 

1. HEGEMONY OF THEBES. 

The Hegemony of Thebes was both costly and short-lived. The innovation In 
military tactics, by which Epaminondas won the battle of Leuctra, amounted to a 
revolution in method of warfare. [Lecture xv., sec. 3J. Epaminondas may be regarded 
as the originalor of the Greek or Macedonian phalanx, which held the field against the 
world for a century and a half, and the principle of which was the fulcrum of 
Napoleon's success in the field. Beyond this the battle of Leuctra produced no more 
than a few incursions into the Peloponnesus, the last resulting in the fateful battle of 
Mantinea, B. C. 362. The Thebans gained a victory, but only with the irreparable loss 
of Epaminondas. General peace among the Grecian States. 

2. PHILIP OF MACEDON. 

Philip had spent three years in Thebes as a hostage. It was there he became 
acquainted with Epaminondas, from whom he learned the principle of the phalanx, 
which he perfected and used so effectively that it was afterwards called the Macedo- 
nian phalanx. Coming to the throne at the age of twenty-three, he immediately 
established a standing army. Next he saw to the reorganization and thorough disci- 
pline of his own State, and then he was ready to begin the subjugation of his 
neighbors. He conquered Amphipolis [when noticed before ?], Pydna, Potidsa 
[Lecture xx., sec. 1], and then joined Olynthus against Athens. 

3. THE SECOND SACRED WAR. 

Greece was now thoroughly disorganized. What strength Athens had gained during 
her Theban alliance had been lost in the so-called Social War, B. C. 357-355, in which 
the Athenians were compelled to acknowledge the independence of all their former allies. 
And now we come to those events which were to bring about the subjugation of Greece, 
namely, the Sacred Wars. [Lect. xrr., sec. 1.] Cirrha had been dedicated to Apollo 
after the First Sacred War. [Circumstances?] For trespassing on this land the Pho- 
cians were heavily fined by the Amphictyonic Council and the collection of the fine 
entrusted to Tliebes. The Phocians thereupon robbed the temple at Delphi, and with 
the spoil hired troops for a long war. Philip had vainly attempted to force a passage 
into Greece by the pass of ThermopylfE; but now he was invited hj the Thebans to 
come in and assist against the Phocians. For his service (?) to Greece in destroying 
this little State Philip was made a member of the Amphictyonic Council, to take the 
place of the Phocians. Philip was now in a position to control the affairs of Greece. 
Athens headed a national movement against Macedonian interference. Demosthenes 
-led the patriotic party. Tliis was the time and occasion of his wonderful Philippics. 
[Find out all about the Philippics.] 



70 FROM THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR TO TH t; FALL OF COR[NTH. 

4. THE THIRD SACRED WAR B. C 339-338. 

Olyntlms now vevolterl, and begged aid of tlie Athenians (occasion of the OlijntMc 
Orations of Demosthenes), but Philip took the city by trea.cheiy. Macedonian party 
formed at Athens, to which the orator, iEschines, belonged. Through his in- 
fluence the shamefnl peace of Philocrates, H. C. 346, was concluded, leaving Philip 
in possession of all liis conquests in Greece. Athens organized an Hellenic League. 
Philip now instigted the Amphictyonic Council to punish Amphissa for trespass and 
to entrust himself with the execution of the sentence. Amphissa was destroyed and 
its place in the Amphictyony also given to Philip. Such was the so-called Third 
Sacred War which Philip used as a pretext for preparations to subjugate Greece. 

,5. THE BATTLE OF CHAERONEA, B. C 338. 

No sooner had Philip received his commission than he siezed Elatea, which com- 
manded the pass into Jkpotia. Now that it was too late, Greece became thoroughly 
aroused. A league of Hellenic States, headed by Athens, was formed against Philip. 
At the personal solicitation of Demosthenes, Thebes (what was Thebes's former position?) 
itself joined the league. At Chterouea, (location?) B. C. 338, the Allies were defeated, 
Alexander turning the tide by the destruction of the Holy Band of Thebau-;. Favor- 
able peace of Demades. Sparta humbled. Greek independence, which had survived a 
Marathon, a Thermopylte, and even a Peloponnesian war, sank on the field of Chfe- 
ronea to rise no more for over 2,150 years. 

Read: Lodge's Modern Europe, ch. xxv.. Part n. Myers's Greece, ch. xxiii., xxiv., 
XXV.; Plutarch's Demosdtenes and PJiocion ; Demosthenes's 0?"a^/o«5, especially the 
Philippics; Curteis's The Macedonian Empire. 

LECTURE XXIV. -ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

[Follow this lecture with a good map before you. Find every point and trace 
every movement.] 

1. THE BATTLE OF GRANICUS. B C 334. ASIA MINOR. 

"Greece conquered the world by being conquered." Philip's conquest of Greece, 
and the resulting consolidation of Greece and half Hellenic Macedonia, made possible 
the spread of the Greek language and civilization, which was effected by Alexander. 
Battles were won by Alexauder; but great as they were, these do not constitxite his 
greatest claim to the world's recognition. From such a teacher as Aristotle, Alexander 
had learned other lessons than those of war. Only so great a pupil of so great a 
master was worthy to undertake the Hellenization of the world. It is said that within 
thirty years after Alexander's time, over the whole vast territory which he overran, 
"every person who made the slightest pretense to education spoke Greek." Immedi- 
ately after the assassination of Philip at the marriage festivities of his daughter, 
Alexander began the career of conquest, which had been already planned by his father. 
Crossing the Hellespont, with 3.5,000 men, he encountered the Persians at the little 
stream called Granicus. This was to his other battles only like the preliminary 
skirmish to a great engagement, yet it made him master of Asia JNlinor. The Mace- 
donian phalanx put the Persians to flight, though Alexander himself narrowly escaped 
death — rescued by Clitus. 

2. BATTLE OF ISSUS. B. C 333. PALESTINE. 

The first maker of world history now directed his march southward to the birth- 
place ol the first writer of world liistory [Find out all about the persons and places,] 
whence the march was continued towards Palestine by a very circuitous route. In a 



r2 PROM THE PELOPONNESIAN WAK TO THE FALL OF OOPJNTH. 

valley near the city of Issus, on the Issicus Sinus, at the northeastern extremity of 
the Mediterranean, Alexander found tlie Persians strongly posted under the Great King 
himself, Darius Codomanus. In u. narrow pass not unlike Thermopylae [Lecture xvi., 
sec ?),] the Persian host, said to have numbered 600,000, being deprived by the nature 
of the ground of the advantage of numbers, was put to rout with great slaughter. 
^Darius himself escaped, but his mother and his wife and children were captured. 
[What hint of the Persian mode of warfare in this?] 

3. TYRE AND EGYPT, B. C 332. EGYPT. 

Proceeding soutiiward along the eastern end of the Mediterranean, Alexander next 
la.id siege to Tyre, the London of ancient times. Only after seven months of incredi- 
ble exertion was the city taken by means of a mole through the sea [find out about 
this mole]. This was perhaps one of the greatest of Alexander's military achieve- 
ments. Palestine submitted. Gaza's king, for resistance, was tied to a chariot and 
dragged around the walls till dead — in imitation of Achilles's treatment of Hector? 
[Lecture vii., sec. 4.] Proceeding thence to Egypt, Alexander received the willing sub- 
mission of the inhabitants, [why willing?] founded the city called by his name, visited 
tlie oracle of Zeus Ammou in the Lybian desert, where he induced the priests to make 
the oracle declare him divine — descended from Zeus Amnion — and the destined con- 
queror of the world. 

4 THE BATTLE OF GAUGAMELA (ARBELA), B. C 331 PERSIA. 

From Egypt Alexander returned through Syria, crossing the Euphrates at Thap- 
sacus, and the Tigris about fifty miles above the site of Nineveh. Thence turning 
south he followed the left bank of that river, past the mounds under which slumbered 
tlie ruins of the once mighty Nineveli, to the little village of Gaugamela,i near which 
the Persians were advantageously posted on a wide plain. Here was to be decided 
whether or not Greek civilization was to bring the known world into one family two 
centuries before Rome was ready for universal empire, and prepare the way for the 
transmission of Greek culture and learning t > the East, before political ruin overtook 
the land, whence, preserved by the Arabs, it might be returned in life-giving streams 
upon the barren wastes of the Middle Ages in Europe. 

Syracuse [Lecture xxi., sec. 3] had decided that the world's future politics should 
bear the impress of Rome instead of Athens, but it was Gaugamela that saved Greek 
learning for the redemption of a Roman world. Alexander's remarkable strategy 
defeated the unwieldy though brave Persian army, and Darius was assassinated during 
his iiight. Alexander overran Central Asia as far as the Indus, married an Eastern 
princess, adopted Eastern dress and luxury, and died of a fever induced by excesses, 
P. C. 323, at Babylon. 

5 RESULTS OF ALEXANDER S ACHIEVEMENTS 

(1) Ended (temporarily) tlie two centuries of conflict between Greece and Persia. 

(2) Gave the world a common [Hellenic] civilization. 

(3) Prepared the world as to language and political unity for Christianity. 

(4) Reopened the maritime trade route between Europe and India. 

(5) Furnished the means of preserving and transmitting Greek learning to future 
ages. 

(6) Sudden wealth with its accompanying luxury and vice demoralized the Greeks. 

(7) Indirectly the decay of the Roman Republic, because Greek vice and indolence 
was surely passed on to Rome. 



1. Aibela, by whose name thu battle was originally called, lies about twenty miles faitbei- south. 



74 FROM THE PELOPONNESIAN WAK TO THE FALL OF CORIKTH. 

(8) Remotely introduced the evils as well as the advantages of ancient Greek life 
into the life of the Middle Ages. 

Study and report: Philip of Macedon, the Phalanx, Alexander, the Battle of 
Arbela, Clitus, Darius Codonianus, Tyre, Alexandria. 

Read: Plutarch's Alexander; Myers's Greece, ch. xxvi.; Art. "Alexander," " Gra- 
nicus," " Issus," "Arbela," "Tyre," in Ericyc. Brit.; Creasy's Decisive Battle of the 
World, ch. in.; Dodge's Great Captains, Lecture i.; Mahaflfy's Story of Alexander's 
Empire^ 

LECTURE XXV— ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE AND THE LATER GREEK LEAGUES.' 

Upon the death of Alexander there followed a generation of wars, intrigues, and 
murders for which it would be difficult to find a parallel in history. Alexander's chief 
officer, Perdiccas, married his master's sister in the hope of thus succeeding to his 
power, but his own troops murdered him. Each of Alexander's eight most powerful 
generals now seized a part of the Empire for himself. These warred and intrigued 
among themselves till at last, about B. C. 300, five main divisions had become more or 
less permanent. 

2. THE WOULD COMPREHENDED IN FIVE HELLENISTIC MONARCHIES. 

(1) Syria under the three Seleucidte and the three Antiochse. Capital at Seleucia> 
on the Tigris, about thirty miles from Babylon; later at Antioch, on the Mediterranean. 
Antiochus 111. tlie Great (B. C. 224-187), was defeated at Magnesia (190) by the Romans, 
and his kingdom fell to pieces. 

(2) Egypt under the five Ptolemies (B. C. 323-181) till it became dependent upon 
Rome (181). Capital at Alexandria. The Alexandrine Library founded by Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, B. C. 285-247. 

(3) Macedonia under tlie descendents of Poliorcetes, B. C. 278-168. Capital, Pella. 
It was overthrown in the battle of Pydna, and became dependent upon Rome. [Sec. 5.] 

(Pergamon), the kingdom of Lysimaclms, included Asia Minor and Thrace. Capi- 
tal, Pergamon in Asia Minor. Founded B. C. 283 by a governor whom Lysimachus had 
appointed. Bequeathed to the Romans by Attains III., B. C. 133. 

(5) Bythinia. Capital, Nicomedia. Founded by iS^icomedes I. Bequeathed by 
Nicomedes III. to the Romans, B. C. 75. 

Besides these Rhodes remained independent, and the Greek cantons tried in vain 
to throw off the Macedonian yoke. 

3. AETOLIAN LEAGUE, B. C. 280. 

The Lamian War, which began immediately after the death of Alexander and 
lasted only a year, was a brave attempt of the Greek States, led by Athens, to regain 
their liberty. "Athens passed out of politics here.'' Later, Poliorcetes of Macedonia, 
was several times in possession of Athens, and the utter subjugation of the country was 
averted only by the ^Etolian League. This was a loose confederation of cantons, at 
whose head stood JLtolia. Before the time of Alexander they had been mere loosely 
confederated robber cantons. It was reorganized B. C. 280 for political purposes. 

G0n>TSTITTJTI03Sr : 

(1) Popular Assembly. Every free man had a vote. 

(2) Senate of at least thirty members — sort of Executive Committee. 

(3) Council {Sunedroi) or Cabinet of the General-in-Chief. 

(4) "Writers of the law" — the judiciary. 

(5) General-in-Chief, leader in foreign affairs and war. Presided over Popular 
Assembly. 

The League was dissolved at the fall of Corinth. 



76 



FBOM THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR TO THE FALL OF CORINTH. 



4. THE ACHAEN LEAGUE. 

Contemporaneously with the ^Etolian League there sprang into importance another 
league, the Achaean; this had originally twelve cities for members. This league fur- 
nishes the nearest approach of ancient times to the representative principle in govern- 
ment. Closer association than the ^Etolian League. Votes taken by cities and cast by 
those representatives wlio might be present. Constitution much like that of the 
iEtolian League, except that the Senate numbered 120 members, ten from each city. 

The Achaean League also dissolved at the fall of Corinth. 

5 FALL or CORINTH, B. C 146. 

The Romans gained their first foothold in Greece through the suppression of the 
Illyrian pirates, B. C. 229, acquired supremacy over a few Greek cities and were admit- 
ted to the Isthmian Games and the Eleusiiiian Mysteries. [Lect. vn., sees. 4, 5.] In 219 
part of Illyria was subjugated. Immediately after the battle of Cannse (216), Philip of 
Macedonia foolishly allied himself with Carthage against Rome, and his troops aided 
Hannibal at Zama, B. C. 202. As soon as peace was concluded with Carthage, therefore, 
the Romans invaded Macedonia. The victory of Cynoscephalse (197) gave them control 
in Greek affairs. By the overthrow of Perseus at Pydna (168), Macedonia became 
entirely dependent upon Rome. A thousand Achseans — the historian, Polybius, among 
them — were carried off to Rome. B. C. 146 Macedonia, in punishment for revolt, was 
made a Roman province. At the same time a rising of the Achaean League, incited by 
a returned band of the prisoners of Pydna, caused Rome to attack Corinth, the head 
city of the League. The Greeks were defeated in the battle of Leucopetra, Corinth 
was plundered and her art treasures taken to Rome. Greece did not come to an end ; 
it became a province of Rome. 

Read: ?\\ii-A.vch.''s Aratus &n^ PMloiycevien; Yveema.n's History of Federal Gov- 
ernment, &c., chs. V. and vi. — for fuller account read also chs. vii.-ix. Davidson's 
Education of the Greek People; Gardner's New Chapters in Greek History. Myers's 
Greece, ch. xxvii. — also the whole of Pnrt Sixth. Authorities as before cited. 

Note: Make a brief outline of Greek History without consulting any books. 



HoUinger Corp 
pH8.5 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ^ 

027 584 431 7 



T I !!• _ /^_ 



